Search results

During the second half of the nineteenth century, the introduction of new weaponry dramatically changed the balance between moral factors and technology on the battlefield. Yet, this shift was widely met by a renewed emphasis on the importance of the human element. This article explores the development of thinking on this issue in the British Army during the period from 1856 to 1899. This reveals three phases, representing the struggle between the conservative Duke of Cambridge and the modernizing Lord Wolseley, with their view explored through the writings of key theorists and in the official manuals. This reveals that the Duke remained focused on a mechanical model, centred on the teachings of Jomini, where the troops were simply tools in the hands of their commanders, whereas Wolseley emphasized the need to protect the 'moral strength' of the troops and saw undermining that of the enemy as the key to victory, yet always recognizing that bravery and resilience could never overcome modern weaponry.

Los chicos y chicas aprenden a interaccionar y comunicarse con sus iguales a partir de las relaciones interpersonales que mantienen en la escuela. Relaciones que pueden verse enturbiadas o alteradas por situaciones de desequilibrio y abuso entre los iguales que llegan a afectar a su propio desarrollo psicosocial. El acoso escolar es un fenómeno que quebranta la convivencia positiva entre los escolares que ha llamado la atención de las familias, profesores, políticos, investigadores y de la sociedad en general durante las últimas décadas. El acoso escolar puede definirse como una agresión intencional y repetida en el tiempo que uno o más individuos hacen sobre otro igual (Olweus, 1993). Entre víctima y agresor se establece un desequilibrio de poder sostenido del que la víctima se encuentra indefensa y sin posibilidades de parar la situación de abuso (Ortega-Ruiz, 2010). La intencionalidad de la agresión refleja que esta conducta puede ser una estrategia instrumental para el logro o mantenimiento del estatus y del dominio social (Hawley, 1999; Pouwels et al., 2018). El acoso escolar también se caracteriza por su naturaleza inmoral, pues atenta contra los valores de respeto y afecto hacia los demás (Ortega & Mora-Merchán, 1996). Este tipo de violencia entre iguales viola los principios éticos y fomenta la injusticia, el desprecio, la coacción y la soledad. A través del desarrollo de la tecnología y el acceso a Internet, el ciberacoso ha emergido como una nueva forma de acoso. El ciberacoso se define como un comportamiento agresivo intencionado y repetido en el tiempo mediante dispositivos digitales a cargo de uno o varios individuos contra alguien que no puede protegerse (Campbell & Bauman, 2018). Si bien el ciberacoso comparte características del acoso escolar, es necesario matizar algunas distinciones (Smith, 2016). En el ciberespacio la repetición en el tiempo está vinculada con la posibilidad de que una sola conducta de agresión puntual puede multiplicarse en la red, más que con la repetición de la conducta por parte del agresor (Olweus & Limber, 2018). El hecho de quedar almacenada y ser accesible hace que pueda ser reenviada por terceras personas. En el ciberacoso el desequilibrio de poder se vincula con el dominio de las habilidades tecnológicas (Kowalski et al., 2014), así como con el anonimato, que facilita la deshibibición de la agresión, además de dificultar su identificación (Nickerson et al., 2018). Si bien la intencionalidad en el cara a cara tiene por objetivo dañar a la víctima, en el ciberespacio la reducida comunicación hace que el daño causado no sea directamente percibido por el agresor. Además, la accesibilidad permanente hace que la víctima sea vulnerable 24/7 (24 horas los 7 días de la semana), lo cual puede agudizar sus consecuencias psicosociales (DePaolis & Williford, 2019). Numerosos programas de prevención e intervención han emergido para tratar de reducir la implicación de los escolares en acoso escolar y ciberacoso. No obstante, la investigación psicoevolutiva respalda la necesidad de continuar profundizando en los mecanismos que explican por qué algunos escolares se implican en conductas de agresión. A través de la presente tesis se desarrollan tres estudios independientes—aunque relacionados entre sí—con la finalidad de contribuir al avance científico que permita comprender cómo diferentes variables de naturaleza individual y grupal se vinculan con la implicación de los escolares en acoso escolar y ciberacoso. En el primer estudio se analiza la relación entre la desconexión moral, la necesidad de popularidad y el acoso escolar en los escolares. Vinculado con la naturaleza inmoral de la agresión, uno de los factores asociados con la implicación de los escolares en el acoso escolar es la desconexión moral, entendida como el conjunto de estrategias cognitivas que permiten eludir las emociones asociadas al incumplimiento de las normas morales interiorizadas (Bandura, 2002). A través de la desconexión moral los escolares pueden desactivar selectivamente su proceso de autorregulación y llegar a considerar que la agresión puede ser legítima. La desconexión moral se ha analizado como un factor de riesgo en la agresión del acoso escolar principalmente de forma transversal (véase meta-análisis; Gini et al., 2014; Killer et al., 2019). Un menor número de estudios longitudinales han evidenciado cómo aquellos escolares con mayor desconexión moral se involucran posteriormente en la agresión entre iguales (Bjärehed et al., 2021; Falla et al., 2020, 2021; Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019, 2020; Wang et al., 2017). Sin embargo, no existen resultados concluyentes que permitan afirmar que el acoso escolar puede predecir la desconexión moral (Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019; Visconti et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). La relación longitudinal entre desconexión moral y acoso escolar se ha analizado teniendo en cuenta que este mecanismo cognitivo es una característica estable del individuo (Thornberg et al., 2021). No obstante, aún se necesitan estudios que aborden la desconexión moral como un estado o un proceso que puede cambiar y derivar o ser el resultado de un aumento o disminución de la implicación en acoso escolar a corto plazo. El acoso escolar, además de ser definido como un fenómeno inmoral también se caracteriza por su marcado carácter social pues surge y se mantiene en el seno del grupo de los iguales. En ese sentido, se ha demostrado que la popularidad tiene una gran influencia en las conductas de los escolares. La popularidad otorga a los chicos y chicas el acceso a los recursos del grupo (visibilidad, prestigio y atención), lo que les permite tener cierto dominio social. Estos beneficios posibilitan que muchos de ellos desempeñen conductas destinadas a ser reconocido como popular, movidos precisamente por lo que se denomina necesidad de popularidad (Santor et al., 2000). En algunos casos, la agresión se convierte en una estrategia efectiva para acceder a ese deseado estado de dominio e influencia sobre los demás (Malamut et al., 2020). La necesidad de popularidad se ha reconocido como un factor de riesgo del acoso escolar (Caravita & Cillessen, 2012; Duffy et al., 2017; Garandeau & Lansu, 2019; Romera et al., 2017; Sijtsema et al., 2009) e incluso, en menor medida, se ha considerado como un resultado del acoso escolar (Dumas et al., 2019; Malamut et al., 2020). Aunque la necesidad de popularidad y la desconexión moral no se han vinculado previamente, determinadas perspectivas teóricas apuntan a una posible asociación entre motivación y moralidad. En la desconexión moral, las motivaciones personales constituyen un elemento clave en la desactivación selectiva de las estrategias de autorregulación de la conducta social. En base a ello, las motivaciones de naturaleza egoísta, como puede ser la necesidad de ser popular, pueden determinar el juicio moral de los escolares (Thomas, 2021). La necesidad de popularidad se ha analizado en estudios previos como un rasgo estable a lo largo del tiempo (Dawes & Xie, 2017). No obstante, se necesitan estudios longitudinales que aborden la necesidad de popularidad como un estado, es decir, como una característica que puede variar a corto plazo y que puede influir o ser influenciada por un aumento o disminución del acoso escolar y la desconexión moral (McDonald & Asher, 2018). ; Boys and girls learn to interact and communicate with their peers from the interpersonal relationships they maintain at school. These relationships can be disturbed or altered by situations of imbalance and abuse among peers, which can affect their psychosocial development. Bullying is a phenomenon that interrupts the positive convivencia among schoolchildren and has attracted the attention of families, teachers, politicians, researchers, and society in general during the last decades. Bullying can be defined as intentional and repeated aggression over time that one or more individuals carry out against another peer (Olweus, 1993). A sustained imbalance of power is established between victim and aggressor, in which the victim is defenseless and cannot put an end to the situation of abuse (Ortega-Ruiz, 2010). The intentionality of the aggression shows that this behavior can be an instrumental strategy to achieve or maintain social status and dominance (Hawley, 1999; Pouwels et al., 2018). Bullying is also characterized by its immoral nature, as it violates the values of respect and affection for others (Ortega & Mora-Merchán, 1996). This type of peer violence violates ethical principles and fosters injustice, contempt, coercion, and loneliness. Through the development of technology and Internet access, cyberbullying has emerged as a new form of bullying. Cyberbullying is defined as aggressive behavior, intentional and repeated over time through digital devices by one or more individuals against someone who cannot protect themselves (Campbell & Bauman, 2018). Although cyberbullying shares bullying characteristics, some distinctions need to be qualified (Smith, 2016). In cyberspace, repetition over time is linked to the possibility that a single behavior of punctual aggression can multiply in the network, rather than the repetition of the behavior by the aggressor (Olweus & Limber, 2018). The fact that it is stored and accessible means that it can be forwarded by third parties. In cyberbullying, the imbalance of power is linked to the mastery of technological skills (Kowalski et al., 2014), as well as anonymity, which facilitates the disinhibition of aggression, also making it difficult to identify the bully (Nickerson et al., 2018). Whereas face-to-face intentionality aims to harm the victim, in cyberspace, reduced communication means that the damage caused is not directly perceived by the bully. Further, permanent accessibility makes the victim vulnerable 24/7 (24 hours a day, 7 days a week), which can exacerbate the psychosocial consequences (DePaolis & Williford, 2019). Numerous prevention and intervention programs have emerged to try to reduce the involvement of schoolchildren in bullying and cyberbullying. However, psychodevelopmental research supports the need to continue delving into the mechanisms that explain why some schoolchildren engage in aggressive behaviors. Through this thesis, three independent—albeit related—studies are performed, to contribute to the scientific advance that allows to understand how different variables of a motivational, moral, emotional, and cognitive nature are linked to schoolchildren's engagement in bullying and cyberbullying. The first study analyzes the relationship between moral disengagement, the need for popularity, and bullying perpetration in schoolchildren. Linked to the immoral nature of aggression, one of the factors associated with schoolchildren's involvement in bullying is moral disengagement, understood as the set of cognitive strategies that allow avoiding the emotions associated with the breach of internalized moral norms (Bandura, 2002). Through moral disengagement, schoolchildren can selectively deactivate their self-regulation process and come to consider aggression as legitimate. Moral disengagement has been analyzed mainly transversally as a risk factor in aggression in school bullying (see meta-analyses; Gini et al., 2014; Killer et al., 2019). A smaller number of longitudinal studies have shown how schoolchildren with greater moral disengagement subsequently engage in peer aggression (Bjärehed et al., 2021; Falla et al., 2020, 2021; Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019, 2020; Wang et al., 2017). However, there are no conclusive results that allow to affirm that bullying can predict moral disengagement (Georgiou et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2019; Thornberg, Wänström, Pozzoli, et al., 2019; Visconti et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). The longitudinal relationship between moral disengagement and bullying has been analyzed considering that this cognitive mechanism is a stable characteristic of the individual (Thornberg et al., 2021). However, studies are still needed that address moral disengagement as a state or process that can change and derive from or be the result of an increase or decrease in involvement in bullying in the short term. Bullying, in addition to being defined as an immoral phenomenon, is also characterized by its marked social nature because it arises and is maintained within the peer group. In that sense, it has been shown that popularity greatly influences schoolchildren's behaviors. Popularity gives boys and girls access to the group's resources (visibility, prestige, and attention), which allows them to have some social dominance. These benefits allow many of them to perform behaviors that are considered popular, driven precisely by the so-called need for popularity (Santor et al., 2000). In some cases, bullying becomes an effective strategy to access that coveted state of dominance and influence over others (Malamut et al., 2020). The need for popularity has been recognized as a risk factor for bullying (Caravita & Cillessen, 2012; Duffy et al., 2017; Garandeau & Lansu, 2019; Romera et al., 2017; Sijtsema et al., 2009) and, to a lesser extent, it has even been considered an outcome of bullying (Dumas et al., 2019; Malamut et al., 2020). Although the need for popularity and moral disengagement have not been previously linked, certain theoretical perspectives point to a possible association between motivation and morality. In moral disengagement, personal motivations constitute a key element in the selective deactivation of the self-regulatory strategies of social behavior. In this sense, selfish motivations, like the need to be popular, can determine schoolchildren's moral judgment (Thomas, 2021). The need for popularity has been analyzed in previous studies as a stable trait over time (Dawes & Xie, 2017). Nonetheless, longitudinal studies are needed that address the need for popularity as a state, that is, a characteristic that may vary in the short term and that may influence or be influenced by an increase or decrease in bullying and moral disengagement (McDonald & Asher, 2018).

Climate change is one of the major issues humans face in the 21st century. This decade is critical in shaping the future of Earth and the way humans live on it (IPCC, 2018). Changes in human behavior are necessary to mitigate and adapt to climate change. This series of studies explored factors important in communicating and implementing environmental behavior. The first study tested the effects of an online, interactive carbon calculator with moral interventions on three self-reported measures and one objective measure of behavior over a period of weeks. The interventions resulted in small changes in self-reported behavior and no change in electricity usage. Given participants adopted relatively few additional behaviors, the next study investigated the predictors when people perform or do not perform specific pro-environmental behaviors more in-depth. Participants were also asked whether they, businesses, non-profits, or governments were responsible for spearheading efforts on a behavior when they, as individuals, could perform the behavior but did not. The results indicate that most participants attributed responsibility to themselves. However, belief in one's own ability to perform the behavior is important to behavioral decisions, and predictors vary between behaviors.

Although teacher morale may be defined in multiple ways, most definitions include two themes:teachers have personal needs and the (Bentley R R Remple A M 1970 Manual for the Purdue teacheropinionaire)perceived realization of these needs within the organization often impacts their state ofmind and performance. According to Webster's Dictionary (2010), morale is a person's mental statethat is exhibited by assurance, control, and motivation to perform a task. Bentley and Rempel (1970)defined teacher morale as the degree to which the needs of a person are satisfied, and the person'sperception of how the job situation brought the state of satisfaction of the worker to fruition. As cited inthe Administrator's Handbook for Improving Faculty Morale (Andrews, 1985), Smith defines morale asa confident state of mind that progressively looks to achieve an essential and shared function.

A well-functioning education system is necessary for sustained socioeconomic development and rapid progress in science and technology. Such a system requires well-trained teachers with high morale, who are good role models. This study, designed to determine agriculture teachers' morale and factors affecting it, explains why low morale leads to teachers' apathy, poor job performance, increased value for material rewards, dissatisfaction with school authorities, low turnover and constant shortage. This correlational study (N = 95, reliability = 0.91, a-level = 0.05) shows a gender imbalance favouring male teachers. Besides qualification, personal characteristics were not significantly related to teachers' morale as morale factors, which were also related to teachers' stress in England. They include inadequate pay; poor career structure, lack of promotion opportunities, poor school facilities, inadequate school disciplinary policy, attitudes and behaviour of the school head and of other teachers, and pupils' poor work attitudes and lack of interest in school. Lack of trained teachers had forced schools to hire untrained agriculture teachers, which was likely to lower the quality of education. The researchers concluded that teachers' morale could be improved by giving them pay that matches inflation, job tenure, improved teaching facilities, promotion opportunities, managerial responsibilities and administrative support.

The term 'Global South' marks a new attempt at providing order and meaning in the current global political constellation, replacing the term 'Third World'. But the term 'Global South' is fraught with many ambiguities. This book explores the possible meanings of this new distinction and assesses the advantages and disadvantages of adopting it for understanding the contemporary world. It casts a wide exploratory net, addressing historical transformations of world-interpretation and wider cultural-intellectual meanings

The purpose of this study is to analyze and examine the effect on audit judgment of self-efficacy, obedience pressure, and moral reasoning. The purpose of this study is to analyze and examine the relationship between self-efficacy and obedience pressure using audit judgment as a moderator. The study population consisted of auditors employed by BPK RI Representatives in South Sulawesi Province who had audited local government financial reports for a period of more than five years. The total population is 52 auditors, and because the population is less than 100, the sample is determined using the census method. We gathered data for this study by sending questionnaires to all respondents. The Partial Least Squares (PLS) method was used to analyze the data. The findings indicated that self-efficacy, obedience, and moral reasoning all influenced audit judgment positively and significantly. Additionally, moral reasoning is incapable of moderating the relationship between self-efficacy and audit judgment; similarly, the moral sense is incapable of moderating the relationship between compliance pressure and audit judgment.