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AbstractLittle is known about the interdependence between surface and groundwater extractions and trade. Groundwater metered extraction was modelled at the bore level (n = 1,890) in the Goulburn‐Murray Irrigation District, Victoria, from 2007–08 to 2016–17 to understand its associations with hydrologic, location, climatic, and economic factors. Surface and groundwater extractions were found to be substitutes for each other, with groundwater extractions statistically significantly increasing when: (i) bores were closer to surface water watercourses, (ii) surface water allocations and rainfall were lower, and (iii) surface water temporary market prices and entitlement trade out‐of‐zone volumes were higher. Other key groundwater extraction influences included pumping costs and commodity prices.

This study provides an overview of extension influence on the adoption of irrigation innovations in developed and developing countries, and finds that extension plays a more significant positive role in influencing soft technology adoption in developing countries. Case studies on the nature, use and availability of extension advice in six irrigation schemes in Tanzania, Mozambique and Zimbabwe are presented. The use of government extension officers varied significantly, with extension use not linked to farm outcomes. The results suggest the need to support more diverse sources of advice and to promote institutional reform in south-eastern Africa.