Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hankunti-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 391 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area has loamy soils, 93 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 28 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 18 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) available phosphorus.  An area of about 2 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 36 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 64 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 86 per cent and sufficient in 14 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 109 (28) 107 (27) Pomegranate 109 (28) - Maize 109 (28) 107 (27) Guava 109 (28) - Bajra 109 (28) 107 (27) Jackfruit 109 (28) - Groundnut - 107 (27) Jamun 109 (28) - Sunflower 109 (28) - Musambi 109 (28) - Cotton 109 (28) 107 (27) Lime 109 (28) - Red gram 109 (28) - Cashew - 131 (34) Bengalgram - 216 (55) Custard apple 109 (28) 129 (33) Chilli 109 (28) 107 (27) Amla 109 (28) 129 (33) Tomato 109 (28) 107 (27) Tamarind 109 (28) - Drumstick 109 (28) - Marigold 109 (28) 107 (27) Mulberry 109 (28) 22 (6) Chrysanthemum 109 (28) 107 (27) Mango 109 (28) - Jasmine 109 (28) 107 (27) Sapota 109 (28) - Crossandra 109 (28) 107 (27) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Findings of the socio-economic survey  The survey was conducted in Hankunti-2 is located at North latitude 150 12' 20.596" and 150 10' 38.087" and East longitude 760 3' 14.596'' and 760 1' 41.401" covering an area of about 391.64 ha coming under Hanakunti and Betageri Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Hankunti-2 micro watersheds of Bettageri sub-watershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 37 total respondents, 12 were marginal, (32.43 %) were small 5 (13.51%), 7 (18.92 %) were Semi medium and 7 (18.92 %) were medium and 1 (2.70 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 90 (55.56%) men and 72 (44.44 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.59%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 17.90 per cent illiterates, 21.60 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.02 per cent middle school education, 24.07 per cent high school education, 10.49 per cent of them had PUC education, 9.88 per cent attained graduation.  About, 62.16 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 32.43 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 39.51 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 81.08 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 10.81 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 75.68 per cent possess TV, 43.24 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.30 per cent possess mobile phones and 37.84 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 10.81 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.41 per cent possess tractor and 13.51 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 16.22 per cent possess local cow and 5.41 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 8.88 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.44.  Further, 5.41 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 71.99 per cent (70.91 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 24.11 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 8.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 21.62 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Sorghum, Groundnut, Bengal gram and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 93.98 per cent. 2  Out of the sample households 5.41 percent possessed bank account and 5.41 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 5.41 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Sorghum, Groundnut, Sunflower and Bengal gram was Rs.32568.16, 19035.23, 18433.29, 27266.34, 34457.13 and 34399.77 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.50, 1: 0.90, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.60, 1:1.40 and1:1.60 respectively.  Further, 27.03 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 29.73 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 117078.38 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57375.68 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 26 horticulture trees and 128 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 86.49 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.41 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 91.89 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.95%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 83.78 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 81.08 per cent of the households and 18.92 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 89.19 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 37.84 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.89 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 10.81 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (105.41%), pulses (91.89%) and oilseeds (2.70%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (45.95%) wild animal menace on farm field (40.54%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.16%), inadequacy of irrigation water (37.84%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (70.27%), high rate of interest on credit (51.35%), low price for the agricultural commodities (75.68%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.86%), inadequate extension services (2.70%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (13.51%), Less rainfall (5.41%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (2.70%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Himalapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 498 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 330 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 152 ha covered by forest and 17 ha by others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 7 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 330 ha (66%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 27 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) whereas 5 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm), 34 per cent soils are very shallow to shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 5 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and 34 per cent area very low (0.75) in organic carbon content.  About 19 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 48 percent soils are low (337kg/ha) in available potassium.  An area of about 32 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 34 per cent area is low (4.5ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) covers an area of 17 per cent in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 60(12) 99(20) Sapota - - Maize - 159(32) Pomegranate - 134(27) Bajra - 159(32) Musambi 134(27) - Groundnut - - Lime 134(27) - Sunflower 60(12) 74(15) Amla - 159(32) Redgram - 134(27) Cashew - - Bengal gram 134(27) 25(5) Jackfruit - - Cotton 134(27) 25(5) Jamun - 134(27) Chilli - 85(17) Custard apple 134(27) 25(5) Tomato - 85(17) Tamarind - 134(27) Drumstick - 134(27) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 159(32) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 159(32) Brinjal - 159(32) Bhendi - 159(32) Onion - 25(5)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Himalapur is located at North latitude 160 52' 34.382" and 160 50' 38.077" and East longitude 770 20' 51.651'' and 770 19' 20.923" covering an area of about 498.01 ha coming under Himalapura and Chapetla Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Himalapur micro watersheds of Mokadampur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Himalapur micro-watershed among households surveyed 25 (73.53%) were marginal, 4 (11.76%) were small and 2 (5.88 %) were semi medium farmers. 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 83 (60.58%) men and 54 (39.42 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.7, marginal farmers were 3.9, small farmers were 4.3 and semi medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (42.34%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.64 per cent illiterates, 0.73 percent were functional literates, 47.45 per cent pre university education and 3.65 per cent attained graduation.  About, 76.47 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 35.04 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 94.12 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.94 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 8.82 per cent of the households possess plough.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.38, hired labour (men) available was 8.91 and hired labour (women) available was 7.34.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 94.95 per cent (24.04 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 5.05 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 1.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 2.94 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Bengal gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut and Bengal gram was Rs.36642.31, 78378.30, 30333.70 and 116785.65 with benefit cost ratio of 1:3.50, 1: 1.10, 1: 3.30 and 1: 0.99 respectively.  Further, 2.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 90000.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 39794.12 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 1 horticulture trees and 61 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.18 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 91.18 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (91.18%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.18 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (94.12%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.18%) wild animal menace on farm field (8.82%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.24%), inadequacy of irrigation water (2.94%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.24%), high rate of interest on credit (14.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (76.47%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (79.41%), inadequate extension services (8.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (64.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kidadhala-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 522 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 89 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm).  About 7 per cent of the area is having sandy soils, 81 per cent loamy soils and 1 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 7 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m).  An area of about 0.75%) in 49 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 39 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 21 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 49 per cent area of the soils  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 75 per cent of the area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 12(2) 99 (19) Pomegranate 4(<1) 364(70) Maize 4(<1) 121(23) Guava 2(<1) 364(70) Bajra 4(<1) 349(67) Jackfruit 4(1) 363(70) Redgram 4(<1) 101(19) Jamun 2(<1) 365(70) Bengal gram 7(1) 103 (20) Musambi 4(<1) 364 (70) Groundnut 2(<1) 386 (74) Lime 4(<1) 370 (71) Sunflower 4(<1) 108(21) Cashew - 373(71) Cotton 9 (2) 101(20) Custard apple 56 (11) 378(73) Chilli 4(<1) 99(19) Amla 49(9) 385(74) Tomato 4(<1) 65(12) Tamarind 2(<1) 62 (12) Drumstick 4(<1) 165(31) Marigold 4(<1) 107 (20) Mulberry 4(<1) 425(81) Chrysanthemum 4(<1) 107(20) Mango 2(<1) 62(11) Jasmine 4(<1) 107(20) Sapota 4(<1) 357(68) Crossandra 4(<1) 99(19) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kidadhala-1 is located at North latitude 150 21' 47.551" and 150 20' 28.719" and East longitude 760 13' 39.692'' and 760 11' 46.69" covering an area of about 521.98 ha coming under under Kidadhala, Koppala and Basapura Villages of Koppala taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kidadhala-1 micro watersheds of Bhagyanagar subwatershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 12 (34.29 %) were marginal, 7 (20.00%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were Semi medium and 5 (14.29 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 91 (50.28%) men and 89 (49.17 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (39.78%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.17 per cent illiterates, 1.10 percent were functional literates, 45.30 per cent pre university education and 1.66 per cent attained graduation.  About, 28.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 68.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 9.94 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 88.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 85.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 22.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 22.86 per cent possess local cow and 11.43 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 6.40 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.97.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 81.64 per cent (77.81 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 16.14 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 9.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 31.42 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Cotton, Red gram and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 77.86 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Cotton, Red gram and Sunflower was Rs.45125.41, 27940.51, 38832.25, 29911.57 and 37509.54 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.10, 1: 1.50, 1: 2.60, 1: 0.90 and 1:0.80 respectively.  Further, 31.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 42.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 90614.57 in micro-watershed, of which Rs. 65941.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 19 horticulture trees and 103 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3142.86 for land development and Rs. 1200.00 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 14.29 per cent depends on own funds and 45.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 25.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 111.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (57.14%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 57.14 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.29 per cent of the households and 5.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 77.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 88.57 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 0.00 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (80.00%) and oilseeds (5.71%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (31.43%) wild animal menace on farm field (37.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (57.14%), high rate of interest on credit (42.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (54.29%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (5.71%), Less rainfall (22.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (22.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Haligeri-5 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 614 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soil and 1 per cent by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 76 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 4 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 95 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 17 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 82 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 76 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 23 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 7 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (<4.5ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 255(41) Sapota - - Maize - 255 (41) Pomegranate - 255(41) Bajra - 255(41) Guava - - Redgram - 255(41) Jackfruit - - Bengal gram - 255(41) Jamun - - Groundnut - - Musambi - 255(41) Sunflower - 255(41) Lime - 255(41) Cotton - 255(41) Cashew - - Chilli - 255(41) Custard apple - 255(41) Tomato - - Amla - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Marigold - 255(41) Bhendi - 255(41) Chrysanthemum - 255 (41) Drumstick - - Jasmine - - Mulberry - - Crossandra - - Mango - - - - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Haligeri-5 is located at North latitude 150 25' 26.363" and 150 23' 45.883" and East longitude 760 5' 15.039'' and 760 3' 17.019" covering an area of about 643.51 ha coming under Haligeri, Veerapura and Bhanapur villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Haligeri-5 micro watersheds of Haligeri sub-watershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Haligeri-5 micro-watershed among households surveyed 14 (40.00%) were marginal, 9 (25.71%) were small and 7 (20.00 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 83 (57.64%) men and 61 (42.36 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4, marginal farmers 4.6, small farmers were 3.1 and semi medium farmers were 4.6.  Majority of the respondents (34.72%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 20.83 per cent illiterates, 77.09 per cent pre university education and 6.94 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 55.56 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 94.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 34.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 14.29 per cent possess tractor, 8.57 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.45, women available in the micro watershed was 1.19, hired labour (men) available was 11.35 and hired labour (women) available was 12.  Further, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 99.05 per cent (42.70 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 0.95 per cent area is irrigated land.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 2.86 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Green gram, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 85.54 per cent.  Out of the sample households 31.43 percent possessed bank account.  About 31.43 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Green gram, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Sunflower was Rs.23599.76 , 20722.41, 28321.72, 20402.46 and 12440.42 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.50, 1: 1.80, 1: 3.80, 1: 0.90 and 1:2.40 respectively.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 90230.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 73594.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 13 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2685.71 for land development. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 51.43 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (82.86%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.14 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 31.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (48.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (14.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), high rate of interest on credit (71.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (51.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (65.71%), inadequate extension services (2.86%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Gudigere North-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 364 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and 1 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 58 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of about 99 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area of about 99 per cent has soils that are moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 58 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 41 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (320 ppm) in the area of about 33 per cent soils.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 19 per cent, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 68 per cent and high (>1.0 ppm) in 12 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 55 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 70 (19) 148 (41) Sapota - - Maize - 213 (58) Pomegranate - 209 (57) Bajra - 213 (58) Musambi 70 (19) 139 (38) Groundnut - - Lime 70 (19) 139 (38) Sunflower 70 (19) 139 (38) Amla - 218 (60) Red gram - 209 (57) Cashew - - Bengalgram 70 (19) 148 (41) Jackfruit - - Cotton 70 (19) 148 (41) Jamun - 208 (57) Chilli - - Custard apple 70 (19) 148 (41) Tomato - - Tamarind - 209 (57) Brinjal - 217 (60) Mulberry - 75 (20) Onion - - Marigold - 218 (60) Bhendi - 217 (60) Chrysanthemum - 218 (60) Drumstick - 209 (57) Jasmine - 9 (2) Mango - - Crossandra - - Guava - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Gudigeri North-2 is located at North latitude 150 21' 36.361" and 150 20' 51.482" and East longitude 750 55' 24.117'' and 750 53' 57.784" covering an area of about 201.97 ha coming under Kavalura villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Gudigeri North-2 micro watersheds of Gudigeri subwatershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 14 (40.00 %) were marginal, 7 (20.00%) were small and 8 (22.86 %) were Semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 81 (50.00%) men and 81 (50.00 %) were women. The average population of the landless was 4, marginal farmers were 5.3 and small farmers were 3.8 and semi medium farmers were 4.6.  Majority of the respondents (47.53%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 29.01 per cent illiterates, 28.40 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.02 per cent middle school education, and 15.43 per cent high school education, 7.41 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.70 per cent attained graduation and 8.02 them had other education.  About, 45.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 40.00 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 33.33 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 37.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 60.00 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 97.14 per cent possess TV, 62.86 per cent possess mixer grinder and 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.29 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.12, women available in the micro watershed was 1.12, hired labour (men) available was 7 and hired labour (women) available was 7.00.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 81.62 per cent (35.74 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 12.49 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 8.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Sunflower, Bengalgram and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.64 per cent. 2  Out of the sample households 8.57 percent possessed bank account.  About 8.57 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Sunflower, Bengalgram was Rs.34581.45 , 24053.88 and 27404.84 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 1.10 and 1: 0.70 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 50428.57 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 27142.86 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 12 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 2.86 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5142.86 for land development and Rs. 1628.57 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 74.29 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 74.29 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 71.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (74.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 74.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.29 per cent of the households and 5.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 42.86 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (97.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (74.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (71.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (74.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (5.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (71.43%), high rate of interest on credit (71.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (71.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29%), inadequate extension services (11.43%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (68.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kunikeri-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 515 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soils and 7 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 0.75%) in 18 per cent of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in about 59 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 34 per cent in the microwatershed.  About 29 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 62 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 27 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 103 (20) 71 (14) Sapota 131 (25) 99 (19) Maize 102 (20) 72 (14) Pomegranate 131 (25) 99 (19) Bajra 148 (29) 93 (18) Musambi 131 (25) 99 (19) Groundnut 29 (6) 335 (65) Lime 131 (25) 99 (19) Sunflower 102 (20) 60 (12) Amla 162 (31) 230 (45) Red gram 102 (20) 60 (12) Cashew 45 (9) 182 (35) Bengalgram - 174 (34) Jackfruit 131 (25) 98 (19) Cotton 58 (11) 116 (22) Jamun 58 (11) 172 (33) Chilli 103 (20) 71 (14) Custard apple 162 (31) 230 (45) Tomato 103 (20) 71 (14) Tamarind 58 (11) 160 (31) Brinjal 74 (14) 246 (48) Mulberry 161 (31) 218 (42) Onion 45 (9) 275 (53) Marigold 102 (20) 72 (14) Bhendi 45 (9) 275 (53) Chrysanthemum 102 (20) 72 (14) Drumstick 145 (28) 140 (27) Jasmine 102 (20) 72 (14) Mango 58 (11) 103 (20) Crossandra 102 (20) 72 (14) Guava 44 (9) 186 (36)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kunikeri-1 is located at North latitude 150 18' 3.842" and 150 15' 42.427" and East longitude 760 13' 44.407'' and 760 12' 27.153" covering an area of about 514.95 ha coming under Kunakeri and Lachanakeri Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 32 respondents, 10 (31.25%) were marginal, 7(21.88%) were small and 6 (18.75%) were semi medium and 4 (12.50%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (58.90%) men and 60 (41.10%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (42.47%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 44.52 per cent illiterates and only 6.16 per cent attained graduation.  About, 68.75 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 28.13 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 48.63 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 81.25 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 3.13 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.88 per cent possess TV, 53.13 per cent possess mixer grinder and 90.63 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 21.88 per cent of the households possess plough and only 15.63 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 12.50 per cent possess local cow and 3.13 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 9.27 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.77.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (39.77 ha), 63.21 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 32.97 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 4.00 bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Red gram, Bengal gram, cotton, sugarcane and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 68.89 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Red gram, Bengal gram and Groundnut was Rs.33504.09, 31123.35, 26149.12, 15712.88 and 42321.08 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.00, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.80 and 1:2.20 respectively.  Further, 6.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 28.13 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 78946.88 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 53700.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown horticulture crop 1 coconut trees in the fields and 30 neem and 3 tamarind forest species in their field.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs 6.25. for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 3.13 per cent depends on own funds and 6.25 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 93.75 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 6.25 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 71.88 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (9.38 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 65.63 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 93.75 per cent of the households and 6.25 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 84.38 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 87.50 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 87.50 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 9.38 per cent do not possess PDS card. Cereals (90.63%), pulses (81.25%), oilseeds (25.00%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (65.63%) wild animal menace on farm field (62.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (50.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (59.38%), high rate of interest on credit (43.75%), low price for the agricultural commodities (50.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (46.88%), inadequate extension services (18.75%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (37.50%), Less rainfall (31.25%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (3.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf4 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 469 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 263 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 206 ha by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series 6 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 263 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 36 per cent area is very shallow (0.75%) in organic carbon, 10 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) 2 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  About 41 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium, 9 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 6 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 46 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 29 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - - Guava - - Maize - - Sapota - - Bajra - - Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - - Amla - - Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-4 is located at North latitude 160 54' 2.051" and 160 52' 20.777" and East longitude 770 14' 23.244'' and 770 13' 0.007" covering an area of about 467.67 ha coming under Motanahalli, Kotageri and Katagi Shahapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-4 micro watersheds of Yadgir Rf subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-4 micro-watershed among households surveyed 25 (71.43%) were marginal, 4 (11.43%) were small and 2 (5.71 %) were semi medium farmers. 4 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 77 (52.74%) men and 69 (47.26 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 4.4, small farmers were 4.3 and semi medium farmers were 3.5.  Majority of the respondents (41.78%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 55.48 per cent illiterates, 41.09 per cent pre university education and 2.05 per cent attained graduation.  About, 94.29 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 22.60 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 68.57 per cent possess TV, 34.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 57.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 2.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households possess plough.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.15, women available in the micro watershed was 1.15, hired labour (men) available was 7.76 and hired labour (women) available was 7.82.  Further, 94.29 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (26.36 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Red gram and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 103.81 per cent. 2  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 85.71 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 85.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Red gram and Groundnut was Rs.28377.27 , 82075.37, 30297.85, 28377.27 and 127706.25 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.03, 1: 0.67, 1: 1.02, 1: 1.03 and 1:0.85 respectively.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 42282.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 22140.00 comes from agriculture.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 285.71 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 11.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 77.14 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 94.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (88.57%), pulses (80.00%) and oilseeds (11.43%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (80.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (54.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20.00%), high rate of interest on credit (17.14%), low price for the agricultural commodities (11.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (11.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (40.00%), Less rainfall (51.43%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (42.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Pirlagar-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 642 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 499 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 129 ha by forest and about 14 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 69 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 69 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 4 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 22 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 36 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 26(4) 17(3) Guava - 15(2) Maize - 43(7) Sapota - 15(2) Bajra - 58(9) Pomegranate - 56(9) Groundnut - 17(3) Musambi 24(4) 32(5) Sunflower 9(1) 32(5) Lime 24(4) 32(5) Redgram - 57(9) Amla - 43(7) Bengal gram 41(6) 2(<1) Cashew - - Cotton 41(6) 2(<1) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 44(7) Jamun - 56(9) Tomato - 26(4) Custard apple 41(6) 2(<1) Brinjal 24(4) 34(5) Tamarind - 56(9) Onion 24(4) 17(3) Mulberry - - Bhendi 24(4) 34(5) Marigold - 59(9) Drumstick - 57(9) Chrysanthemum - 59(9) Mango - 7(1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Pirlagar-1 is located at North latitude 160 51' 57.153" and 160 49' 59.55" and East longitude 770 19' 43.401'' and 770 17' 21.799" covering an area of about 641.90 ha coming under Yampada, Gajarakota, Himalapura and Chinthanapalli Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Pirlagar-1 micro watersheds of Bewanahalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 32 (91.43 %) were marginal and 3 (8.57%) were small farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (54.78%) men and 71 (45.22 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.95%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.68 per cent illiterates, 1.91 percent were functional literates, 45.22 per cent pre university education and 2.55 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 37.58 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.67, hired labour (men) available was 7.57 and hired labour (women) available was 5.43.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 61.01 per cent (19.07 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 38.99 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 18.00 live bore wells wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 51.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton and Paddy, and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Paddy was Rs.37615.01 , 50412.01 and 128062.01 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 1.90 and 1: 1.05 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 96614.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 47471.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 54 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. 2  Regarding marketing channels, 94.29 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 5.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (100.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (2.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (100.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (2.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (11.43%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), high rate of interest on credit (2.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (62.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.14%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 306 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 141(46%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 165 ha (54%) covered by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 141 ha (46%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 31 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and about 4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - - Guava - - Maize - - Sapota - - Bajra - - Pomegranate - - Groundnut - - Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - - Amla - - Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - - Jamun - - Tomato - - Custard apple - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - - Marigold - - Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-1 is located at North latitude 160 56' 33.469" and 160 56' 0.445" and East longitude 770 11' 20.418'' and 770 9' 57.462" covering an area of about 142.59 ha coming unde Baggalamadu, Alur. B and Bhimanahalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-1 micro watersheds of Chikka Alur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 10 (28.57%) were marginal, 13 (37.14%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 97 (58.79%) men and 68 (41.21 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.2, marginal farmers were 3.4, small farmers were 5.2, semi medium farmers were 5.2 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (43.03%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 46.67 per cent illiterates, 49.08 per cent pre university education and 4.24 per cent attained graduation.  About, 48.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 42.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 29.09 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 68.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 60.00 per cent possess TV, 57.14 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 14.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess plough, 20.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.43 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.57, women available in the micro watershed was 1.30, hired labour (men) available was 7.23 and hired labour (women) available was 11.1.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (49.19 ha) of the area is under dry condition. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Green gram, Maize and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account and 17.14 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 68.57 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 6.25 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 75.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 92.86 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 7.14 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Green gram and Maize was Rs.21228.66, 15877.36 and 20572.72 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.12, 1: 1.90 and 1: 1.72 respectively.  Further, 20.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 75218.57 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 37504.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 10 horticulture trees and 20 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 60.00 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2200.00 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 54.29 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 31.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (54.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 45.71 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 57.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (57.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (74.29%), inadequate extension services (71.43%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (82.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

This Thesis has been mainly developed in the laboratories of IMAES research group in the Chemical Engineering Department at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM). It is a part of a research line dealing with the elimination of emerging contaminants in wastewater using advanced oxidation processes. It has been supported by the "Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad" (MINECO, Spanish Government) through the project CTM2013-44317-R entitled "Tratamiento en planta piloto de efluentes acuosos industriales mediante sonofotocatálisis UV/solar" and UCLM funding GI20142907. In addition, some parts of this research were carried out at the Department of Chemical Engineering of the University of Bath (United Kingdom), thanks to University of Bath International Research Fund Future Research Leaders Incubator Scheme, and at the School of Engineering of the University of Edinburgh, through a research visit supported by MINECO. Over the past 15 years, increasing numbers of studies have identified numerous different water sources containing trace, but accumulating, toxic chemicals. Many of such chemicals are thought to be recalcitrant, inhibitory or toxic to biological treatment in both wastewater treatment works and in the environment and so may be able to enter our water cycle. Photocatalysis is a promising degradation technology for such compounds, however due to inefficient and costly reactor systems, it has not yet been widely taken up by Industry. This project seeks to rectify this, by comparing a wide range of photocatalytic reactor technologies that have been integrated with further intensification technologies to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the pollutant degradation. This includes: different reactor configurations (falling film photoreactor, solar compound parabolic collectors (CPC), a spinning disc reactor.) and intensifications processes (use of ultrasound (US), ferrioxalate and sulfate radicals-based advanced oxidation processes). This Thesis is focussed on comparing and optimizing the key parameters controlling the reaction kinetics and mechanisms of the reactors to determine the optimal degree of treatment of these types of accumulating toxic biologically recalcitrant chemicals in wastewaters, using antipyrine and carmamazepine as model compounds. The treatment efficiency and effectiveness, neural network optimization as well as technoeconomic analysis were used to determine the optimal intensification technology of photocatalytic process. Finally, real industrial effluents were also tested to prove the validity of studied processes. Overall, the main novelty of this work will be the first extensive study comparing a wide range of photocatalytic process intensification technologies. ANTIPIRINE The removal of antipyrine (AP) was evaluated under a sono-photo-Fenton system (UV/H2O2/Fe/US) in a synthetic wastewater reaching 79% of mineralization in 50 minutes in optimal conditions ([H2O2]0 = 500 mg/L; [Fe2+]0 = 27 mg/L; Amplitude = 20% and Pulse length = 1). The radical reaction in the bulk solution was found be the primary mineralization pathway (94.8%), followed by photolysis (3.65%), direct reaction with H2O2 (0.86%) and reaction by ultrasonically generated oxidative species (0.64%). Complete mineralization of reaction intermediates refractory towards hydroxyl radical was attained using persulfate anions simultaneously activated by heat energy (thermally, ultrasound) and UV-C light. The SO·4-based mineralization process enables another reaction pathway generating more easy degradable derivatives reaching more than 99% of total organic carbon (TOC) removal in 120 min under selected optimal operating conditions ([S2O82-]0 = 1200 mg/L; Temperature = 50 ªC; Amplitude = 10%; pH = 2.8). This demonstrated that activated persulfate-based oxidation system is a potential alternative to degrade intermediate compounds, which are refractory to hydroxyl radicals. The degradation of AP in aqueous solution using UV-A-LED (365 nm) photo-Fenton reaction intensified with ferrioxalate complexes and with the addition of persultate was also studied. A complete degradation of AP and 93% of mineralization of AP solution was reached in 2.5 and 60 min, respectively. In the last step of reaction, different intermediates difficult to be degraded such as 2-butenedioic acid, butanedioic acid, 4-oxo-pentanoic acid, acetate and formate may be generated. Finally, the photodegradation of AP solutions was also studied and optimized in a novel photocatalytic spinning disc reactor (SDR). A heterogeneous process (UV/H2O2/TiO2) was selected. TiO2 was immobilized on the surface of a glass disc using the sol-gel method. AP was completely degraded under the optimal conditions: pH = 4; [H2O2]0 = 1500 mg/L; Disc speed = 500 rpm; Flowrate = 25 mL/s. In addition, regeneration of the disc (up to 10 cycles) was performed with no loss in efficiency. The value of the apparent volumetric rate constant was found to be 6.9·10^4 s-1 with no apparent mass transfer limitation. Based on the main identified intermediates, a reaction mechanism was proposed for antipyrine photodegradation: firstly, cleavage of the N-N bond of penta-heterocycle leads to the formation of two aromatic acids and N-phenylpropanamide. An attack to the C-N bond in the latter compound produced bencenamina. Finally, the phenyl ring of the aromatic intermediates was opened and molecular organic acids were formed. CARBAMAZEPINE Different sytems including UV/H2O2/Fe/US, UV/H2O2/US and UV/H2O2 were used to study the photodegradation process of the antiepileptic drug carbamazepine (CBZ). An important synergistic effect between sonolysis and UV irradiation of 27.7% was quantified using the pseudo-first-order rate constants for carbamazepine degradation. An empirical model that includes the scavenger effect was applied and satisfactorily reproduced both degradation and mineralization of CBZ. It was found that the carbamazepine photodegradation occured mainly through a radical mechanism in two steps: during the first 10–15 min, CBZ was completely degraded, whereas TOC barely changed, confirming that intermediates were not easy to mineralize. From that moment, intermediates were formed and HO· radicals were responsible for increased mineralization rate with a gradual decrease in the scavenger effect (kscv = 0.0004 min^-1 mM^-1). 93% of mineralization in 35 minutes was reached when the initial conditions were [Fe2+]0 = 15 mg/L and [H2O2]0 = 680 mg/L. A study of the flow pattern inside the reactor showed that improvement in mineralization rate with US radiation cannot be attributed to a positive effect in mixing. On the other hand, \textit{in situ} chemical oxidation of CBZ was also performed using persulfate anions simultaneously activated by heat energy (thermal, ultrasound), UV-C light, Fe2+ ions and hydrogen peroxide. Nearly complete mineralization (99%) was reached in 90 min. The mineralization process of carbamazepine solutions can be described using pseudo-second-order kinetics in the studied system. A lab thin film reactor was tested to remove CBZ in a photo-Fenton system assisted with ultrasound radiation (UV/H2O2/Fe/US) achieving 89% of mineralization in 35 min. The synergism between the UV process and the sonolytic one was quantified as 55.2%. The sono-photodegradation of CBZ was also tested in a thin film pilot plant reactor and compared with a 28-L UV-C conventional pilot plant and with a solar Collector Parabolic Compound (CPC). At pilot plant scale, a UV/H2O2/Fe/US process reaching 60% of mineralization would cost 2.1 and 3.8 €/m^3 for the conventional and thin film plant, respectively. In the solar process, electric consumption accounts for a maximum of 33% of total costs. Thus, for 80% TOC removal, the cost of this treatment was about 1.36 €/m^3. However, the efficiency of the solar installation decreases in cloudy days and cannot be used during night, so that a limited flow rate can be treated. REAL WASTEWATER FROM BEVERAGE INDUSTRY Real industrial wastewater from beverage industry was studied during solar photo-Fenton system intensified with ferrioxalates complexes in a CPC plant. 70.6% and 96.6% of TOC was removed after 55 and 125 min, respectively, under optimal conditions (H2O2 flowrate = 460 mL/h}; (COOH)2 flowrate = 2100 mL/h}; [Fe2+]0 = 150 mg/L;} pH = 2.79; Medium solar power = 35.8 Wh). It was found that solar power was the main factor affecting mineralization during the first 60 Wh of accumulated solar energy due to the generation of hydroxyl radicals. However, solar power is unimportant at the end of the process (150 Wh of accumulated energy), when the molecular reaction mechanism between H2O2 and the intermediates was predominant. The overall mineralization process (k = 0.0096 min^-1) occured due to the contributions of the photo-Fenton process (k = 0.0044 min^-1) and the ferrioxalate photochemistry (k = 0.003 min^-1)}. The synergism between both processes was 22.9% based on the pseudo-first-order rate constants for TOC removal. A wastewater with similar characteristics was treated in a conventional UV-C pilot plant using a photo-Fenton process intensified with persulfate. Under optimal conditions (pH = 2.9; [H2O2]0 = 4000 mg/L}; [Fe2+]0 = 375 mg/L), 53% of mineralization was achieved after two hours. The remaining TOC was mainly composed of acetate and formate, whose decarboxylation was limited via hydroxyl radical reactions. Thus, persulfate was added to the system after 2 h to obtain a more efficient decarboxylation by sulfate radicals. The combined treatment with UV-C irradiation and thermally activated persulfate enhanced the mineralization efficiency. Under the best conditions, 76% mineralization was achieved in 4 h: first 2 h under photo-Fenton reaction (UV-C/H2O2/Fe) and UV-C/H2O2/Fe/S2O82-/Thermal process in the second two hours (65 ªC; [S2O82-]0 = 1500 mg/L). WASTEWATER EFFLUENT FROM PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY Finally, a ferrioxalate-assited photo-Fenton process was used to treat an industrial wastewater effluent from a pharmaceutical laboratory in a CPC semi-industrial plant. More than 79% of TOC was removed in 2 h when the aquous effluent containing up to 400 mg/L of organic carbon concentration. It could be seen that most of TOC removal occurs early in the first hour of reaction. Then the degradation shows a slower rate due to the generation of acetates which are more difficult to eliminate.

Introduction: In accordance with global testing and treatment targets, many countries are seeking ways to reach the "90-90-90" goals, starting with diagnosing 90% of all people with HIV. Quality HIV testing services are needed to enable people with HIV to be diagnosed and linked to treatment as early as possible. It is essential that opportunities to reach people with undiagnosed HIV are not missed, diagnoses are correct and HIV-negative individuals are not inadvertently initiated on life-long treatment. We conducted this systematic review to assess the magnitude of misdiagnosis and to describe poor HIV testing practices using rapid diagnostic tests. Methods: We systematically searched peer-reviewed articles, abstracts and grey literature published from 1 January 1990 to 19 April 2017. Studies were included if they used at least two rapid diagnostic tests and reported on HIV misdiagnosis, factors related to potential misdiagnosis or described quality issues and errors related to HIV testing. Results: Sixty-four studies were included in this review. A small proportion of false positive (median 3.1%, interquartile range (IQR): 0.4-5.2%) and false negative (median: 0.4%, IQR: 0-3.9%) diagnoses were identified. Suboptimal testing strategies were the most common factor in studies reporting misdiagnoses, particularly false positive diagnoses due to using a "tiebreaker" test to resolve discrepant test results. A substantial proportion of false negative diagnoses were related to retesting among people on antiretroviral therapy. Conclusions: HIV testing errors and poor practices, particularly those resulting in false positive or false negative diagnoses, do occur but are preventable. Efforts to accelerate HIV diagnosis and linkage to treatment should be complemented by efforts to improve the quality of HIV testing services and strengthen the quality management systems, particularly the use of validated testing algorithms and strategies, retesting people diagnosed with HIV before initiating treatment and providing clear messages to people with HIV on treatment on the risk of a "false negative" test result. Introduction: Population-wide HIV testing services (HTS) must be delivered in order to achieve universal antiretroviral treatment (ART) coverage. To accurately deliver HTS at such scale, non-facility-based HIV point-of-care testing (HIV-POCT) is necessary but requires rigorous quality assurance (QA). This study assessed the performance of community-wide HTS in Zambia and South Africa (SA) as part of the HPTN 071 (PopART) study and explores the impact of quality improvement interventions on HTS performance. Methods: Between 2014 and 2016, HIV-POCT was undertaken within households both as part of the randomly selected HPTN 071 research cohort (Population Cohort [PC]) and as part of the intervention provided by community HIV-care providers. HIV-POCT followed national algorithms in both countries. Consenting PC participants provided a venous blood sample in addition to being offered HIV-POCT. We compared results obtained in the PC using a laboratory-based gold standard (GS) testing algorithm and HIV-POCT. Comprehensive QA mechanisms were put in place to support the community-wide testing. Participants who were identified as having a false negative or false positive HIV rapid test were revisited and offered retesting. Results: We initially observed poor sensitivity (45-54%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 31-69) of HIV-POCT in the PC in SA compared to sensitivity in Zambia for the same time period of 95.8% (95% CI 93-98). In both countries, specificity of HIV-POCT was >98%. With enhanced QA interventions and adoption of the same HIV-POCT algorithm, sensitivity in SA improved to a similar level as in Zambia. Conclusions: This is one of the first reports of HIV-POCT performance during wide-scale delivery of HTS compared to a GS laboratory algorithm. HIV-POCT in a real-world setting had a lower sensitivity than anticipated. Appropriate choice of HIV-POCT algorithms, intensive training and supervision, and robust QA mechanisms are necessary to optimize HIV-POCT test performance when testing is delivered at a community level. HIV-POCT in clients who did not disclose that they were on ART may have contributed to false negative HIV-POCT results and should be the topic of future research. Introduction: Rapid diagnostic testing has made HIV diagnosis and subsequent treatment more accessible. However, multiple factors, including improper implementation of testing strategies and clerical errors, have been reported to lead to HIV misdiagnosis. The World Health Organization has recommended HIV retesting prior to antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation which has become pertinent with scaling up of Early Access to ART for All (EAAA). In this analysis, misdiagnosed clients are identified from a subgroup of clients enrolled in EAAA implementation study in Swaziland. Methods: The subgroup to assess misdiagnosis was identified from enrolled EAAA study clients, who had an undetectable viral load prior to ART initiation between September 1, 2014 and May 31, 2016. One hundred and five of 2533 (4%) clients had an undetectable viral load prior to initiation to ART (pre-ART). The HIV status of clients was confirmed using the Determine HIV 1/2 and Uni-Gold HIV 1/2 rapid tests performed serially as recommended by the national testing algorithm. The status of clients on ART was additionally confirmed by fourth-generation HIV Ag/Ab combo tests, Architect and Genscreen Ultra. Results: Fourteen of the 105 (13%) clients were false positive (HIV negative) on confirmation testing, of whom five (36%) were still in pre-ART care, while nine (64%) were in ART care. Overall, proportion of false positive was 0.6% (14/2533). The false-positive clients had a median CD4 of 791 cells/ml (interquartile range (IQR): 628, 967) compared to 549 cells/ml (IQR: 387, 791) for true positives (HIV positive) (p = 0.0081) and were nearly 20 years older (p = 0.0008). Conclusions: Overall 0.6% of all enrolled EAAA clients were misdiagnosed, and 64% of misdiagnosed clients were initiated on ART. With adoption of EAAA guidelines by national governments, ART initiation regardless of immunological criteria, strengthening of proficiency testing and adoption of retesting prior to ART initiation would allow identification of misdiagnosed clients and further reduce potential of initiating misdiagnosed clients on ART. Introduction: We describe the overall accuracy and performance of a serial rapid HIV testing algorithm used in community-based HIV testing in the context of a population-based household survey conducted in two sub-districts of uMgungundlovu district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, against reference fourth-generation HIV-1/2 antibody and p24 antigen combination immunoassays. We discuss implications of the findings on rapid HIV testing programmes. Methods: Cross-sectional design: Following enrolment into the survey, questionnaires were administered to eligible and consenting participants in order to obtain demographic and HIV-related data. Peripheral blood samples were collected for HIV-related testing. Participants were offered community-based HIV testing in the home by trained field workers using a serial algorithm with two rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) in series. In the laboratory, reference HIV testing was conducted using two fourth-generation immunoassays with all positives in the confirmatory test considered true positives. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and false-positive and false-negative rates were determined. Results: Of 10,236 individuals enrolled in the survey, 3740 were tested in the home (median age 24 years (interquartile range 19-31 years), 42.1% males and HIV positivity on RDT algorithm 8.0%). From those tested, 3729 (99.7%) had a definitive RDT result as well as a laboratory immunoassay result. The overall accuracy of the RDT when compared to the fourth-generation immunoassays was 98.8% (95% confidence interval (CI) 98.5-99.2). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were 91.1% (95% CI 87.5-93.7), 99.9% (95% CI 99.8-100), 99.3% (95% CI 97.4-99.8) and 99.1% (95% CI 98.8-99.4) respectively. The false-positive and false-negative rates were 0.06% (95% CI 0.01-0.24) and 8.9% (95% CI 6.3-12.53). Compared to true positives, false negatives were more likely to be recently infected on limited antigen avidity assay and to report antiretroviral therapy (ART) use. Conclusions: The overall accuracy of the RDT algorithm was high. However, there were few false positives, and the sensitivity was lower than expected with high false negatives, despite implementation of quality assurance measures. False negatives were associated with recent (early) infection and ART exposure. The RDT algorithm was able to correctly identify the majority of HIV infections in community-based HIV testing. Messaging on the potential for false positives and false negatives should be included in these programmes. Introduction: Rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) for HIV infection have high sensitivity and specificity, but in the setting of longstanding antiretroviral therapy (ART), can give false results that can lead to misinterpretation, confusion and inadequate management. The objective of this study was to evaluate the proportion of falsely negative results of a RDT performed on oral fluid in HIV-infected children on longstanding ART. Methods: One hundred and twenty-nine children with known HIV infection and receiving ART were recruited from the HIV Clinic at the Harare Central Hospital, Zimbabwe. HIV testing was performed on oral fluid and on finger-stick blood. Results and Discussion: Children included in the study had a median age of 12 years (IQR 10-14) and 67 (51.9%) were female.

Предмет. Институционализм как научное направление экономической мысли возник в США в начале XX столетия как одна из форм отображения усилившихся монополитических тенденций в экономике, содействуя разработке и развитию «антитрестовской» политики собственной страны. В определенной мере институционализм противопоставляется неоклассическому направлению экономической теории. Цель. В настоящее время, на взгляд автора, необходимо рассмотреть вопрос о целесообразности формирования еще одного научного направления в рамках институциональной теории направления, названного нами «патоинституционализм». В рамках этой научной концепции планируется сконцентрировать внимание на изучении патологических процессов в институциональной системе и в самих институтах (которые по аналогии можно назвать патоинститутами). Использование данного названия объясняется тем, что термин «патологический процесс» образован от греческого «патос», что означает болезнь. Учитывая, что в последнее время на разных уровнях общественной иерархии участились всевозможные кризисы, которые весьма болезненно переживаются населением, представляется, что развитие патоинституционализма является весьма актуальным. Результаты. Усиление кризисов и диспропорций связано также и с институциональным фактором, причем как на уровне отдельных институтов, так и с функционированием институциональной системы в целом. Поэтому одним из важнейших аспектов развития патоинституционализма как нового научного направления должно стать изучение взаимосвязи между усилением кризисных проявлений и диспропорциональности, возникающих в социально-экономических системах на разных уровнях управленческой иерархии, с одной стороны, и институциональным фактором, институциональным направлением, с другой стороны. Еще одним очень важным аспектом патоинституционализма может стать изучение различных видов и типов патологий в самой институциональной системе, в том числе во всевозможных институтах. В этой связи крайне важной проблемой может стать определение критериев и количественных показателей, на основе которых нормальный институт отличается от патоинститута. Такого рода проблема актуальна и для институциональной системы в целом (т.е. для определения нормальной и патологической институциональной системы в целом). Очевидно также, что патоинституционализм будет связан с другими, уже сложившимися направлениями и концепциями институциональной теории. Так, один из основоположников институциональной теории Т. Веблен критиковал паразитический образ жизни занятых только финансовой деятельностью рантье-владельцев особой, абсентеистской формы частной собственности. Этим самым он по существу противопоставлял эту, если так можно выразиться, праздную часть бизнесменов остальным (нормальным) предпринимателям, реально зарабатывающим свой предпринимательский доход. Иначе говоря, по существу у Т. Веблена абсентеистская форма собственности и ее владельцы рассматриваются как некая патология, которая, в отличии от обычных предпринимателей, мешает эффективному развитию экономики, в том числе эффективному развитию научно-технического прогресса. Справедливость сказанного можно видеть на примере современной российской действительности, когда многие олигархи, сколотившие огромные состояния за коротких срок за счет использования природных ресурсов, по существу являющимися народным достоянием России и поэтому им самим не принадлежащими, используют значительную часть полученных доходов не на развитие производства, а на удовлетворение собственных прихотей. Тот факт, что многие российские бизнесмены в условиях, когда физический и моральный износ основных фондов во многих отраслях приближается к 100%, значительную часть своих доходов тратят на непроизводственное, непроизводительное потребление и нередко делают это за рубежом, также свидетельствует о ненормальности, патологичности современной российской институциональной системы, в том числе, некоторых государственных структур, являющихся ее важнейшими атрибутами. Это обстоятельство также самым серьезным и самым негативным образом сказывается на социально-экономической эффективности модернизации и вообще эффективности НТП в России. Иначе говоря, абсентеистская форма собственности один из важнейших тормозов модернизации и технического перевооружения российской экономики. Таким образом, можно видеть, что в рамках институциональной теории уже достаточно давно исследуются различного рода экономические аномалии, патологии (хотя, как правило, называемые иным образом), связанные с нарушениями, отклонениями от обычного, стандартного поведения различных институтов или институциональной системы в целом. Однако происходило это не часто, время от времени, спорадически. Здесь же нами предлагается сконцентрировать внимание на изучении такого рода институциональных патологиях, что позволит выявить общее и особенное в них, раскрыть закономерности и тенденции их функционировании и в конце концов поможет осуществить разработку направлений, форм и методов устранения этих патологий (или хотя бы это будет способствовать уменьшению негативного их воздействия на социально-экономические процессы). Целесообразно различать, на наш взгляд, патологии в институциональной системе, в институциональной среде и в самих институтах (в этом случае последние можно называть патоинститутами). Так, к патоинститутам можно отнести устаревшие институты, нуждающиеся в замене или обновлении; отжившие институты, приносящие вред и мешающие реализации прогрессивных мероприятий, а также неправильные институты, тормозящие развитие социально-экономических процессов, например, процесс модернизации российского общества. Выводы. В статье дается характеристика патоинституционализма как перспективного направления институциональной теории, определяются сущность и критерии выделения патоинститутов сквозь призму возможности использования этих понятий при анализе факторов и особенностей модернизации российской экономики.Subject. Institutionalism as a scientific direction of economic thought emerged in the United States at the beginning of the XX century as a form of heightened monopoliticheskih display trends in the economy, contributing to the design and development of "antitrust" policy of their own country. To a certain extent opposed to the neoclassical institutionalism direction of economic theory. Purpose. At present, the author's opinion, it is necessary to consider the advisability of forming another scientific field within the institutional theory the direction which we call "patoinstitutsionalizm." As part of this scientific concept is planned to focus on the study of pathological processes in the institutional system and the institutions themselves (which can be called by analogy patoinstitutami). The use of this name due to the fact that the term "pathological process" derives from the Greek "pathos" meaning disease. Considering that in recent years at various levels of the social hierarchy frequent various crises that very painfully public, it appears that the development patoinstitutsionalizma is very important. Results. Strengthening of crises and imbalances associated also with institutional factors, both at the level of individual institutions and the functioning of the institutional system as a whole. Therefore, one of the most important aspects of patoinstitutsionalizma as a new scientific field should be the study of the relationship between the increasing manifestations of the crisis and the disproportionality arising from the socio-economic systems at different levels of the management hierarchy, on the one hand, and institutional factors, institutional direction, on the other hand. Another very important aspect patoinstitutsionalizma may be to study different types and kinds of pathologies of the institutional system, including in various institutes. In this regard, the crucial problem may be defining the criteria and quantitative indicators, based on which the Institute is different from the normal patoinstituta. This kind of problem is relevant for the institutional system as a whole (ie, to determine normal and abnormal institutional system as a whole). It is also obvious that patoinstitutsionalizm be linked to other, already established trends and concepts of institutional theory. So, one of the founders of the theory of institutional Veblen criticized the parasitic life employment rentier-financial activities of the special owners, absenteistskoy forms of private property. Thereby it is substantially opposed this, if I may say so, idle the rest of the business (normal) entrepreneurs actually earn your business income. In other words, substantially at Veblen absenteistskaya ownership and its owner are regarded as a kind of pathology, which, unlike ordinary businessmen, hinders the effective development of the economy, including the effective development of scientific and technical progress. The validity of the above can be seen in contemporary Russia, where many of the oligarchs, who made huge fortunes in a short time through the use of natural resources, is essentially a national treasure of Russia, and therefore do not belong to themselves, used a significant portion of revenues in the development of production, and to satisfy their own whims. The fact that many Russian businessmen in an environment where physical and moral depreciation of fixed assets in many sectors of close to 100%, a significant part of their income spent on non-productive, non-productive consumption, and often do so abroad also shows abnormalities, pathological modern Russian the institutional system, including some government agencies that are its most important attributes. This fact is also the most serious and the most negative impact on the socio-economic efficiency of modernization and general effectiveness of NTP in Russia. In other words, absenteistskaya ownership one of the major brakes modernization and technical re-equipment of the Russian economy. Thus, we can see that in the framework of the institutional theory have long studied various kinds of economic anomaly, pathology (although usually called otherwise) related to the impairment, deviations from the normal, default behavior of the various institutions or the institutional system as a whole. However, this does not happen often, from time to time, sporadically. Here we propose to focus on the study of such institutional pathologies that will reveal the general and particular in them, to reveal patterns and trends in their operation, and in the end help to carry out development directions, forms and methods of eliminating these pathologies (or at least it will help reduce the negative impact on their social and economic processes). It is advisable to distinguish, in our opinion, the pathology in the institutional system in the institutional environment and the institutions themselves (in this case, the latter can call patoinstitutami). So, for patoinstitutam include outdated institutions in need of replacement or upgrade; obsolete institutions that bring harm and impede the implementation of progressive measures, as well as the wrong institutions, hindering the development of socio-economic processes, for example, the process of modernization of the Russian society. Conclusions. The article describes how patoinstitutsionalizma promising trend of institutional theory, defined the nature and allocation criteria patoinstitutov through the prism of the possibility of using these concepts in the analysis of the factors and features of the modernization of the Russian economy.

Las metodologías de evaluación de pavimentos, son utilizadas como una herramienta técnica, objetiva, sistemática y reproducible, para evaluar la eficiencia y eficacia de las obras de rehabilitación y mejoramiento vial, empleadas en todo el mundo para recopilar y analizar información sobre el estado de las carreteras. Evaluaciones que incluyen diagnósticos, tanto de la capacidad estructural de las vías, como de su capacidad funcional en términos de comodidad y costo de operación de los vehículos, así como elementos de diseño geométrico, de seguridad vial y de su condición superficial lo cual permite tener un enfoque integral de los diversos problemas asociados a la infraestructura vial. Los resultados obtenidos se constituyen en guía para que quienes administran el patrimonio vial puedan técnicamente determinar las políticas y estrategias de intervención, tanto a nivel de red vial, como a nivel de proyectos específicos y lograr así que estas prácticas conlleven a inversiones eficientes y eficaces de los limitados fondos públicos. Existen varias metodologías o manuales para la evaluación de las condiciones de los pavimentos asfálticos, que difieren en definiciones y sistemas de calificación; para el desarrollo del presente trabajo se adelantaron actividades de campo relacionadas con la aplicación de diferentes formas de calificación de estado de los pavimentos asfálticos, comparando los resultados de la evaluación superficial del sector elegido, mediante las metodologías VIZIR, PCR y PCI. El Instituto Nacional de Vías – INVÍAS encargado de administrar la red vial nacional, adoptó en el 2002 la metodología francesa VIZIR para el inventario de daños de las calzadas con pavimento asfáltico de la red a su cargo, igualmente con base en esta metodología estructuró los contratos de mantenimiento integral; adicionalmente el Instituto Nacional de Concesiones INCO en los estudios contratados para establecer los anexos técnicos del proyecto de concesión Ruta del Sol realizados por la firma Euroestudios para la IFC International Finance Corporation utilizó la metodología antes mencionada. El Ministerio de Transporte - Plan Vial Regional en el 2008 desarrolló un proyecto para el levantamiento de inventarios viales en la red secundaria y parte de la terciaria de los departamentos; en los pliegos de condiciones estableció que para determinar el estado de superficie de las vías que se encuentren con pavimento asfáltico o concreto, debería calcular el índice de condición de pavimento (PCI) siguiendo las pautas dadas en el documento "PAVEMENT CONDITION INDEX (PCI) PARA PAVIMENTOS ASFÁLTICOS Y DE CONCRETO EN CARRETERAS", preparado por el ING. ESP. LUIS RICARDO VÁSQUEZ VARELA. De lo anterior surge la pregunta: ¿Cuál es la metodología más adecuada para evaluar el estado de los daños y los índices de condición en pavimentos asfálticos en las carreteras de Colombia? Los resultados obtenidos por las entidades territoriales, no se han comparado con la aplicación de otras metodologías (PCR, PCI), convirtiéndose en un incentivo para el presente trabajo, a fin de proponer mediante el mismo para los entes gubernamentales, la metodología más cercana a las necesidades de la red vial a cargo a partir de las evaluaciones y recomendaciones que reflejen realmente las condiciones de estado de los daños e índices de condición en pavimentos asfálticos. Situación que permitirá disponer de una herramienta útil que estandarice las actividades de inspección de los deterioros de los pavimentos asfálticos, a la vez contar con instructivos con los cuales se puedan llevar a cabo, de una manera práctica y sencilla, la caracterización y la evaluación de los deterioros, obteniendo la información necesaria para el diseño de las intervenciones requeridas por la vía considerando que: 1. Proveer información cualitativa para determinar las posibles causas de deterioros en los pavimentos asfálticos y el desarrollo de estrategias apropiadas para reparar los defectos y prevenir su recurrencia. 2. Evalúen la progresión de los daños, las consecuencias de postergar su intervención y el costo de las diferentes estrategias de rehabilitación. 3. Permitan zonificar tramos uniformes para el diseño. Para la elaboración de este documento se han tenido en cuenta diversas experiencias obtenidas en la práctica local, así como de agencias reconocidas en otros países como Méjico y Costa Rica, a partir de las cuales se determina que la valoración visual de los deterioros del pavimento no se constituye en un criterio suficiente para definir las acciones que requiere una calzada para su rehabilitación. De lo anterior, un estudio de estos deberá complementarse con la siguiente información: •Análisis de los resultados del Índice de Rugosidad Internacional (IRI). •Valoración para cada uno de los sectores de estudio de la capacidad mecánica de la estructura de pavimento mediante análisis deflectométrico de subsectores representativos y la caracterización físico-mecánica de las capas granulares y de la subrasante, para cumplir tal fin, se evaluará la información tomada en campo, así como la obtenida en estudios previos. ; Pavement evaluation methodologies are used as a technical, objective, systematic and reproducible tool to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of road rehabilitation and improvement works, used throughout the world to collect and analyze information on the state of the roads. roads. Evaluations that include diagnoses, both of the structural capacity of the roads, as well as of their functional capacity in terms of comfort and cost of operation of the vehicles, as well as elements of geometric design, road safety and their surface condition which allows to have a comprehensive approach to the various problems associated with road infrastructure. The results obtained constitute a guide so that those who administer the road assets can technically determine the intervention policies and strategies, both at the road network level, and at the level of specific projects and thus achieve that these practices lead to efficient and effective investments of limited public funds. There are several methodologies or manuals for the evaluation of the conditions of asphalt pavements, which differ in definitions and rating systems; For the development of this work, field activities related to the application of different forms of qualification of the condition of asphalt pavements were carried out, comparing the results of the surface evaluation of the chosen sector, using the VIZIR, PCR and PCI methodologies. The Instituto Nacional de Vías - INVÍAS, in charge of managing the national road network, adopted in 2002 the French VIZIR methodology for the inventory of damage to the asphalt paved roads of the network under its charge, and based on this methodology it structured the contracts comprehensive maintenance; Additionally, the National Institute of Concessions INCO in the studies contracted to establish the technical annexes of the Ruta del Sol concession project carried out by the firm Euroestudios for the IFC International Finance Corporation used the aforementioned methodology. The Ministry of Transport - Regional Road Plan in 2008 developed a project for the survey of road inventories in the secondary network and part of the tertiary of the departments; In the specifications it established that to determine the surface condition of the roads that are with asphalt or concrete pavement, the pavement condition index (PCI) should be calculated following the guidelines given in the document "PAVEMENT CONDITION INDEX (PCI) FOR ASPHALTIC AND CONCRETE PAVEMENTS ON HIGHWAYS ", prepared by ING. ESP. LUIS RICARDO VÁSQUEZ VARELA. From the above, the question arises: What is the most appropriate methodology to evaluate the state of damage and condition indices in asphalt pavements on Colombian roads? The results obtained by the territorial entities have not been compared with the application of other methodologies (PCR, PCI), becoming an incentive for this work, in order to propose through it for government entities, the methodology closest to the needs of the road network in charge of the evaluations and recommendations that really reflect the condition of the damage and condition indices in asphalt pavements. Situation that will allow to have a useful tool that standardizes the activities of inspection of the deterioration of the asphalt pavements, at the same time having instructions with which the characterization and evaluation of deterioration, obtaining the necessary information for the design of the interventions required by the road considering that: 1. Provide qualitative information to determine the possible causes of deterioration in asphalt pavements and the development of appropriate strategies to repair defects and prevent their recurrence. 2. Evaluate the progression of the damage, the consequences of delaying your intervention, and the cost of the different rehabilitation strategies. 3. Allow uniform spans for the design to be zoned. For the preparation of this document, various experiences obtained in local practice have been taken into account, as well as from recognized agencies in other countries such as Mexico and Costa Rica, from which it is determined that the visual assessment of the deterioration of the pavement does not it constitutes a sufficient criterion to define the actions that a road requires for its rehabilitation. From the above, a study of these should be complemented with the following information: • Analysis of the results of the International Roughness Index (IRI). • Evaluation for each of the study sectors of the mechanical capacity of the pavement structure through deflectometric analysis of representative subsectors and the physical-mechanical characterization of the granular layers and the subgrade, to fulfill this purpose, the information will be evaluated taken in the field, as well as that obtained in previous studies. ; Magíster en Infraestructura Vial ; http://unidadinvestigacion.usta.edu.co ; Maestría

President Obama travelled to Europe this week for a one-day summit of the G-20 in London and a NATO summit in Strasbourg and Kehl. He then went to Prague to deliver a non-proliferation speech, which, with exquisite timing on the part of the North Koreans, came on the same day as that country tested a ballistic missile delivery system over Japan. In both the G-20 and the NATO summit, protestors took to the streets, in some cases becoming quite destructive.Obama's performance in Europe is being debated in the strongest terms in the United States: did he deliver? While many were again moved by his ability to dazzle European audiences, a consensus seems to be emerging that he is coming back home empty-handed. It would be easy to dismiss this divergence of views as politics as usual, with the Republicans criticizing him harshly while his own party lavishes praise on his performance, but it is somewhat more complicated than that: the question today is how much his popularity and charisma translate into getting palpable results that meet US interests.Dominique Moïsi recently commented on the risks of ignoring the dichotomy between Obama's essence (whohe is)and his performance (what he does). For the rest of the world in general, and for Europeans in particular, his electoral triumph has evoked enthusiasm and restored confidence in the resilience and vitality of American democracy, which many had come to doubt. With Obama, the man himself is the message. They like who he is, but will they also like what he does to protect American interests around the world? Changes in foreign policy are often less about grand declarations than they are about alterations in tone, outlook and priorities. However, underlying the rhetoric and the diplomatic dialogue, there are always the nation's interests which are much more immutable than changes in leadership. Obama has already changed the tone and texture of American diplomacy, but transforming the substance of US foreign policy will take much longer and will be much more difficult to achieve.Speaking to a spell-bound audience of French and German students in Strasbourg, France, he urged Europeans to join in a common effort to restructure the global economy and renew the trans-Atlantic alliance. In his cool yet direct way, Obama managed to talk to Europeans in some pretty harsh terms about the strained relationship. He had a difficult message to convey. To soften it, he first confessed America's own hubris: "In America there is a failure to appreciate Europe's leading role in the world. Instead of celebrating your dynamic union.there have been times when America has shown arrogance and been dismissive and even derisive."Then it was Europe's turn:"…But in Europe there is an anti-Americanism that is… casual but that can also be insidious…there have been times when Europeans choose to blame America for much of what is bad…these attitudes have become too common. They are not wise. They do not represent the truth. They fail to acknowledge that America cannot confront the challenges of this century alone but that Europe cannot confront them without America."He then reminded them that Islamic extremism is a threat to Europe as much as it is a threat to the United States. He pointed out some changes his administration has already made to bring it more in line with international sentiment: the closing of Guantánamo, the outlawing of torture, abandoning the use of the terms "enemy combatant" and "the war on terror." "America is changing but it cannot be America alone that changes," he said. He pledged a united front to tackle the Afghanistan war, the Palestinian conflict and the global crisis. Now it is up to Europe to do more, he implied.His speech brought applause from the crowd at several instances. Unfortunately, he was less effective in obtaining what he wanted from European decision-makers. This led pundits here to comment acidly that while Obama's aura and Michelle's grace are both national assets, they are not enough to persuade allies to do what is in the American interest. His harshest critics in the US said that in order to conquer their sympathies, Obama deferred to the European agenda and conceded too much: his mea culpa about American arrogance was too much for the opposition party to swallow. The truth is that he had two very difficult cases to make: first he had to persuade European leaders to increase their fiscal stimulus to 2% of their GDP; then he had to coax them into contributing more troops to the Afghan war. He was rebuffed on both fronts.On the economic front, it was a demand Europeans were not ready to make, given that, unlike the US, these social democracies already are financing large welfare states. Also in contrast with the US, Europe still has room left to use monetary policy to stimulate their economies. However, Obama was successful in starting to rebuild frayed relations not only with Europe but also with Russia and China. The G-20 communiqué contains several important steps toward strengthening international financial regulation, and it includes a directive to triple the IMF resources to 750 billion dollars to help distressed countries as well as a new trade finance initiative of 250 billion by the World Bank. An extra 100 billion in aid for the poorest countries will be raised from capital markets rather than the embers themselves. For a one-day summit, this is indeed progress: Obama is moving the ball down the line without turning it over to the other side. Later down the road, if and when the global economy needs further stimulus, he will be in a good position to make the case for more.In the case of NATO, his success was even perhaps more modest: he got a token increase in European troops for Afghanistan, but these are temporary only and will be deployed to train Afghan police and military, not in a fighting capacity. However, Obama used the forum to redefine America's intention there in much narrower terms, away from the unrealistic goal of establishing a Jeffersonian- style democracy and towards a new focus on rebuilding relations with the native population and containing Al Qaeda. He is also going to travel to Turkey next, to assuage fears in the Muslim world about American intentions toward them.In spite of the new commitment to increase the numbers of boots on the ground, it is clear that the Europeans are looking for an exit strategy in Afghanistan and that Americans, now more than ever, own that war: Obama is increasing the number of troops from 35.000 to 68.000 and has widened the theater of operations to include Pakistan. It is undoubtedly now an American war, a decision that may haunt him for years to come.The lost irony here is that Europeans have been very strident in opposing American unilateralism in Iraq, but when asked for a multilateral effort in Afghanistan, this one being the "legal" war that was approved by the UN Security Council, their response is a tepid 5,000 troops with no permission to engage, only to train Afghan military and police. Europe today has neither the stomach nor the resources for any type of war.In Prague, Obama outlined his vision for a world free of nuclear weapons. He warned that the non-proliferation regime is breaking down and called for a global summit on nuclear security. He said he hoped to negotiate a new treaty to end the production of fissile materials. On the deployment of a missile defense system in Eastern Europe, he opened two big loopholes: he said the US will deploy it "if it is effective" and "if Iran does not change its behavior." This is a major change of policy from the Bush years. It was very well received by the Russians but Obama will be severely criticized if his efforts to change the course in Iran fall flat, which is the most likely scenario.Ironically, while Obama's Prague speech on non-proliferation focused on preventing Iran and North Korea to develop nuclear weapons and delivery systems, Pakistan, a US ally, is not only a nuclear state itself, in possession of around five dozen nuclear weapons, but has a pathetically weak government that lacks the most rudimentary capacity of a modern state: it cannot control its own territory, its institutions are shaky and it is therefore very close to becoming a failed state. For now, it seems that the administration's best bet is to take a minimalist posture of what success here would look like: setting the bar for victory in the region lower, for example to the more modest goals of denying Al Qaeda safe havens and preventing the total collapse of both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Otherwise, the US runs again the risk of being trapped in a quagmire with no end in sight.The greatest paradox of the present world crisis is that among steep criticism of the American model and proposals to "rethink the American paradigm", the rest of the world is still looking to the United States to save them. No other power or world order is emerging to take its place and there is immense yearning and expectation that Obama will deliver a miracle and restore growth, prosperity and order around the world. However, under the new reality of dispersion of power, which is already becoming the defining trait of the 21st century, conflicts will at best be managed by concerted action among allies, but no longer solved by the absolute power and domination of the United States.Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

Children with chronic diseases Chronic viral hepatitis Among human hepatitis viruses, hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses are able to persist in the host for years and thereby causing chronic hepatitis. Three hundred and seventy and 130 million people is estimated to be infected with HBV and HCV, respectively, worldwide (1). In endemic areas, HBV infection is often acquired perinatally or early in childhood and becomes chronic in a high proportion of cases. Universal vaccination of newborns has been effective in reducing the spread of infection. However, hepatitis B is still a social and health problem in underdeveloped areas where immunisation policies are unavailable, and even in developed countries, where the reservoir of infection is maintained by immigration and adoption. In some endemic areas children with chronic hepatitis B are also at risk for superinfection with the hepatitis delta virus (HDV), which worsens the prognosis of liver disease. HCV is not a less important problem. The prevalence of circulating anti-HCV antibodies in the pediatric population averaged 0.3% in Italy in the early 1990s (2), but a national observational study suggest that the number of "new" pediatric infections dropped by approximately 40% in 2000-2004 compared with the previous 5 years (3). The lower prevalence of HCV in children reflects the disappearance of transfusion-related hepatitis and the reduced efficiency of mother-to-child (vertical or perinatal) transmission, although the latter form of transmission is currently responsible for most "new" infections in the developed world and contributes to maintaining the reservoir of infection worldwide (4-7). This favourable epidemiologic trend is balanced, however, by the strong tendency of HCV infection acquired early in life (either perinatally or following blood transfusions) to become chronic (8-14). In the absence of a specific vaccination, HCV infection remains a major global health problem and HCV-related end-stage liver disease is still the most frequent indication for liver transplantation in adult patients. Chronic viral hepatitis acquired in childhood is a long-lasting process based on host-virus interaction, which may change over the years. A number of factors related to the virus (genotype, therapy), to the host (hormonal status, immunocompetence, therapy) and to the environment (alcohol, drugs, co-infections) affects the natural history of the disease, especially during adolescence and early adulthood. Strategies to improve the prevention and treatment of HBV and HCV infection, and the related liver disease in children, before the possible development of irreversible complications, should be investigated and implemented. HIV infection Countries most heavily affected, HIV has reduced life expectancy by more than 20 years, hampered economic growth, and deepened household poverty (UNAIDS. Data from: www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_Global_report.asp). Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) is the main source of pediatric HIV-1 infection. MTCT of HIV-1 mainly occurs around the time of delivery, but breastfeeding is an additional route of viral transmission and accounts for about one-third of pediatric infections in resource-poor Countries (15). In the absence of antiretroviral therapy, about 30% of women transmit the virus to their infants. The estimated number of perinatally acquired AIDS cases in the United States peaked at 945 in 1992 and declined rapidly with expanding prenatal testing and implementation of appropriate preventive interventions (16). At the end of 2007, there were 2 million children living with HIV around the world, an estimated 370,000 children became newly infected with HIV in 2007, and, of the 2 millions people who died of AIDS during 2007, more than one in seven were children. Every hour, around 31 children die as a result of AIDS. HIV can affects a child's life through its effects directly on the child, on that child's family, and on the community within the child is growing up: - Many children are themselves infected with HIV - Children live with family members who are infected with HIV - Children act as carers for sick parents who have AIDS - Many children have lost one or both parents to AIDS, and are orphaned - An increasing number of households are headed by children, as AIDS erodes traditional community support systems - Children end up being their family's principal wage earners, as AIDS prevents adults from working, and creates expensive medical bills - As AIDS ravages a community, schools lose teachers and children are unable to access education - Doctors and nurses die, and children find it difficult to gain care for childhood diseases - Children may lose their friends to AIDS - Children who have HIV in their family may be stigmatized and affected by discrimination In the last 10 years, dramatic advances in medical management of HIV infection have followed the results of clinical trials of antiretroviral combination therapies in children. The use of antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy in HIV-infected women has resulted in a dramatic decrease in the transmission rate to infants, which is currently less than 2% in most high-income Countries (17). In parallel, the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has changed the natural history of HIV-1 infection and the life expectancy of HIV-1-infected adults (18,19) and children (20-26). Although in developed Countries children living with HIV infection are expected to live a long life, they still need to face major emotional burden, social stigma and global exclusion from the social contest (27). Being a child or an adolescent with HIV implies major problems in terms of management of multiple drugs, adherence to antiretroviral therapy, drug resistance, quality of life, frequency at school and social interactions with peers (28). Immunization in at risk children Vaccinations programs are one of the greatest public health interventions of the last century and have dramatically improved quality of life (29). Benefits of vaccination to the individual include partial or complete protection against infections and symptoms of illness, improved quality of life, and prevention of up to 3 million pediatric deaths per year worldwide (29,30). Benefits of a universal vaccination program to society include creation and maintenance of herd immunity, prevention of disease outbreaks, and reduced health care costs (30). Despite the availability of safe and effective vaccines and substantial progresses in reducing vaccine-preventable diseases, delivery to and acceptance of vaccinations by targeted populations are essential to further reducing and eliminating vaccine-preventable causes of morbidity and mortality (31). Children who are not vaccinated endanger public health representing a risk for other nonimmunized individuals, including subjects who cannot be immunized due to underlying health problems, and the small percentage of individuals in whom vaccination does not confer protection (29). They also contribute to increase health care costs (29). Access to immunizations, prevalence of vaccine-preventable diseases, and vaccination rates varies by geographic area or country. Throughout the United States and European Countries, immunization rates of children and adults are rising, but coverage levels have not reached established goals (32). As a result of low immunization rates, vaccine-preventable diseases still occur as evidenced by the measles epidemic, the large number of annual cases of varicella, pertussis, and hepatitis B, and the more than 50,000 annual deaths in adults from influenza or pneumococcal infections (33-36). In an attempt to eliminate the risk of outbreaks of some diseases, governments and other institutions have instituted policies requiring vaccination for all people (compulsory vaccinations). For example, actual vaccination policies in most developed Counties require that children receive common vaccinations before entering school. In addition to compulsory vaccines, certain populations should receive additional vaccinations. Subjects with chronic medical conditions are at increased risk for severe complications related to vaccine-preventable infections, such as influenza and pneumococcal infections (34,37). In Italy, compulsory vaccines are generally administered in vaccination centers and complementary vaccinations are actively offered to children with chronic conditions and are included in the Essential Levels of Care (38). Despite long-standing recommendations to provide recommended vaccinations to children with chronic medical conditions, immunisation rates in these vulnerable populations remain poor (39). Several conditions hamper implementation of these vaccinations, including problems in identifying at risk children, ineffective organizational strategies and lack of awareness of disease severity or poor confidence by parents in specific recommendations (40,41). Often, the presence of a chronic condition is erroneously considered a contraindication rather than an indication to vaccination. It is important to ensure that patients comply with the vaccination schedule to the extent possible, and to provide education to parents who may have concerns about pediatric vaccinations. Goals of the thesis In this PhD thesis, the organization and management of pediatric infectious diseases, with a perspective of public health, are investigated. Specific chronic diseases, as chronic viral hepatitis and HIV infection, have been selected as models to investigate the main aspects of prevention, management and treatment. The goal is to investigate the efficiency of organization and propose interventions with specific reference to treatment of infectious diseases, their direct and indirect results and how these conditions affect quality of life of at risk children and their families. The final goal of this research is to provide strategies to optimize public health system.