Suchergebnisse

The Purpose of the Research. In this article, we will try to consider the reasons for the emergence of a programme for the creation in the Far East of the Soviet Union of the Jewish Autonomous Region (Birobidzhan) and to reveal the process of resettlement to it of the Jewish population from the Ukrainian SSR during the second half of the 1920-ies – the first half of the 1930-ies. The Methodology of the Reseach. During the preparation of the article there were used universal principles of scientific knowledge, basic methods of scientific and historical research, and modern conceptual approaches to the research of socio-economic, political history of the development of the Jewish community of Ukraine. The scientific novelty is determined by the combination of the published materials and archival ones that shed light on the organization of the Soviet government programme to resettle the Jews in the Far East of the USSR. A separate story of the article is dedicated to coverage of participation in the resettlement programme of the Ukrainian Society for Land Management of Jewish Workers (SLMJW). The resettlement of the Jews to Birobidzhan began in 1928 and was in an uneven manner. The colonization of the region took place under difficult natural conditions. During the early years, a relatively large number of migrants arrived. But because of difficult living conditions, poor climate, lack of work and social infrastructure, more than half of the 1928-ies – 1933-ies migrants returned. The Birobidzhan project caused controversy between supporters and opponents of the Jewish colonization of the USSR. The project criticized SLMJW management, pointing out the unfavourable conditions for the displaced persons and the enormous costs of moving and settling the displaced persons. Since 1929, the Society attracted funds from foreign voluntary Jewish organizations to assist the refugees. The agreements were concluded with "Agro-Joint", the American Committee for the Resettlement of Foreign Jews in Birobidzhan. With their involvement, by the mid-1930-ies, roads were constructed in Birobidzhan, and wetlands were drained over a large area. The displaced Jews occupied leading positions in the region. The Jewish schools were created, newspapers and magazines were published. The Conclusions. The relocation to Birobidzhan from the very beginning of the campaign was propaganda. SLMJW offices were opened in all regions of the USSR in order to collect donations for assistance programmes for the impoverished and declassified Jews. The Society produced a huge mass of campaign materials, held lotteries among its members for the benefit of displaced persons. Delegations of workers and journalists were sent to Birobidzhan for further agitation. But in spite of all the measures, Jewish section officials acknowledged that the Jews vote with their feet, not their hands. Out of the newly created region, there was a constant outflow of migrants. In 1931, even demobilized Jewish soldiers were involved into resettlement. More than a thousand people went to Birobidzhan. The only year successful for resettlement was 1932, when famine raged in Ukraine. The Society managed to recruit fourteen thousand people to relocate from Ukraine, but by the next year, sixty percent returned back to Ukraine. Twenty-five thousand were planned to be resettled in 1933, and only three thousand were those who wish.

Introduction. The article presents the principles of classification of precedent phenomena used by different researchers, and also gives the author's classification of the material. The generalization of views on the phenomenon of intertextuality is given, the specificity of the individual author's paradigmatics of M. Weller is determined.Originality. The analysis involved the texts of the collection of stories «Legends of different crossroads», «B. Babylonian» M. I. Weller, whose material made it possible to identify the following types of precedent phenomena: direct quotations, transformed quotations, allusions, references and hints. It has been established that they all differ in the variety of stylistic directions of donor texts, reflecting the author's worldview.Topicality of Research. It should be noted that such a research is conducted for the first time in Ukraine. The article focuses on the impact of social and political changes, social-political factors, living conditions on language consciousness, outlook and worldview by means of association verbalization of recipients' consciousness.The study of intertextuality as a dialogue between Mikhail Weller and the reader in the context of the manifestation of linguistic memory and reader's perception is relevant, especially in connection with the lack of sufficient theoretical development of the artistic heritage of M. Weller. The novelty of the research is determined by the possibility of giving on concrete material the problems that are significant for modern linguistics related to the category of intertextuality.Methodological base of the research. The article is made in line with an interdisciplinary approach. The following main factors were taken into account: the linguistic personality of the writer, formed in a certain socio-historical period; the phenomenon of intertextuality, the «reader's response» associated with the peculiarities of his linguistic memory and perception.Results. The most numerous type of intertextual inclusions was determined by M. Weller. These are allusions. Depending on the source, the following types of allusions were identified: biblicalisms, mythologisms, proverbs and sayings, nominations, toponyms, Soviet stamps and expressions, references to names, terms, signs of culture.Perspectives. The largest place among the precedent names used in the collections is occupied by names from the sphere of politics. In the future, it is planned to compile a typology of precedent names from the sphere of politics based on the texts of M. Weller. We also consider it expedient to study the features of the reader's perception of intertextual units using the psycholinguistic method. The next article will present the results of an experiment to determine the intertextual competence of recipients. ; У статті проаналізовано явище інтертекстуальності в художньому тексті, узагальнено погляди на феномен інтертекстуальності, представлені принципи класифікації прецедентних феноменів. До аналізу залучено тексти збірок оповідань «Легенди різних перехресть», «Б. Вавилонська» М. І. Веллера. Матеріал дозволив виокремити такі типи інтертекстів: прямі цитати, трансформовані цитати, алюзії, відсилання і натяки. Встановлено, що всі вони відрізняються різноманіттям стильових напрямків текстів-донорів, що відображають світогляд автора і специфіку його індивідуально-авторської парадигматики. Були враховані такі основні фактори: мовна особистість письменника, що сформувалася в певний соціально-історичний період; феномен інтертекстуальності, «відгук читача», пов'язаний з особливостями його мовної пам'яті і сприйняття. Встановлено, що серед прецедентних імен, використовуваних у збірниках, найбільше місце займають імена зі сфери політики. У перспективі передбачається скласти типологію прецедентних імен зі сфери політики на матеріалі текстів М. Веллера, а також вивчити особливості читацького сприйняття інтертекстуальних одиниць за допомогою психолінгвістичної методики.

The Purpose of the Research. In this article, we will try to consider the reasons for the emergence of a programme for the creation in the Far East of the Soviet Union of the Jewish Autonomous Region (Birobidzhan) and to reveal the process of resettlement to it of the Jewish population from the Ukrainian SSR during the second half of the 1920-ies – the first half of the 1930-ies. The Methodology of the Reseach. During the preparation of the article there were used universal principles of scientific knowledge, basic methods of scientific and historical research, and modern conceptual approaches to the research of socio-economic, political history of the development of the Jewish community of Ukraine. The scientific novelty is determined by the combination of the published materials and archival ones that shed light on the organization of the Soviet government programme to resettle the Jews in the Far East of the USSR. A separate story of the article is dedicated to coverage of participation in the resettlement programme of the Ukrainian Society for Land Management of Jewish Workers (SLMJW). The resettlement of the Jews to Birobidzhan began in 1928 and was in an uneven manner. The colonization of the region took place under difficult natural conditions. During the early years, a relatively large number of migrants arrived. But because of difficult living conditions, poor climate, lack of work and social infrastructure, more than half of the 1928-ies – 1933-ies migrants returned. The Birobidzhan project caused controversy between supporters and opponents of the Jewish colonization of the USSR. The project criticized SLMJW management, pointing out the unfavourable conditions for the displaced persons and the enormous costs of moving and settling the displaced persons. Since 1929, the Society attracted funds from foreign voluntary Jewish organizations to assist the refugees. The agreements were concluded with "Agro-Joint", the American Committee for the Resettlement of Foreign Jews in Birobidzhan. With their involvement, by the mid-1930-ies, roads were constructed in Birobidzhan, and wetlands were drained over a large area. The displaced Jews occupied leading positions in the region. The Jewish schools were created, newspapers and magazines were published. The Conclusions. The relocation to Birobidzhan from the very beginning of the campaign was propaganda. SLMJW offices were opened in all regions of the USSR in order to collect donations for assistance programmes for the impoverished and declassified Jews. The Society produced a huge mass of campaign materials, held lotteries among its members for the benefit of displaced persons. Delegations of workers and journalists were sent to Birobidzhan for further agitation. But in spite of all the measures, Jewish section officials acknowledged that the Jews vote with their feet, not their hands. Out of the newly created region, there was a constant outflow of migrants. In 1931, even demobilized Jewish soldiers were involved into resettlement. More than a thousand people went to Birobidzhan. The only year successful for resettlement was 1932, when famine raged in Ukraine. The Society managed to recruit fourteen thousand people to relocate from Ukraine, but by the next year, sixty percent returned back to Ukraine. Twenty-five thousand were planned to be resettled in 1933, and only three thousand were those who wish.

Introduction. The article presents the principles of classification of precedent phenomena used by different researchers, and also gives the author's classification of the material. The generalization of views on the phenomenon of intertextuality is given, the specificity of the individual author's paradigmatics of M. Weller is determined.Originality. The analysis involved the texts of the collection of stories «Legends of different crossroads», «B. Babylonian» M. I. Weller, whose material made it possible to identify the following types of precedent phenomena: direct quotations, transformed quotations, allusions, references and hints. It has been established that they all differ in the variety of stylistic directions of donor texts, reflecting the author's worldview.Topicality of Research. It should be noted that such a research is conducted for the first time in Ukraine. The article focuses on the impact of social and political changes, social-political factors, living conditions on language consciousness, outlook and worldview by means of association verbalization of recipients' consciousness.The study of intertextuality as a dialogue between Mikhail Weller and the reader in the context of the manifestation of linguistic memory and reader's perception is relevant, especially in connection with the lack of sufficient theoretical development of the artistic heritage of M. Weller. The novelty of the research is determined by the possibility of giving on concrete material the problems that are significant for modern linguistics related to the category of intertextuality.Methodological base of the research. The article is made in line with an interdisciplinary approach. The following main factors were taken into account: the linguistic personality of the writer, formed in a certain socio-historical period; the phenomenon of intertextuality, the «reader's response» associated with the peculiarities of his linguistic memory and perception.Results. The most numerous type of intertextual inclusions was determined by M. Weller. These are allusions. Depending on the source, the following types of allusions were identified: biblicalisms, mythologisms, proverbs and sayings, nominations, toponyms, Soviet stamps and expressions, references to names, terms, signs of culture.Perspectives. The largest place among the precedent names used in the collections is occupied by names from the sphere of politics. In the future, it is planned to compile a typology of precedent names from the sphere of politics based on the texts of M. Weller. We also consider it expedient to study the features of the reader's perception of intertextual units using the psycholinguistic method. The next article will present the results of an experiment to determine the intertextual competence of recipients. ; У статті проаналізовано явище інтертекстуальності в художньому тексті, узагальнено погляди на феномен інтертекстуальності, представлені принципи класифікації прецедентних феноменів. До аналізу залучено тексти збірок оповідань «Легенди різних перехресть», «Б. Вавилонська» М. І. Веллера. Матеріал дозволив виокремити такі типи інтертекстів: прямі цитати, трансформовані цитати, алюзії, відсилання і натяки. Встановлено, що всі вони відрізняються різноманіттям стильових напрямків текстів-донорів, що відображають світогляд автора і специфіку його індивідуально-авторської парадигматики. Були враховані такі основні фактори: мовна особистість письменника, що сформувалася в певний соціально-історичний період; феномен інтертекстуальності, «відгук читача», пов'язаний з особливостями його мовної пам'яті і сприйняття. Встановлено, що серед прецедентних імен, використовуваних у збірниках, найбільше місце займають імена зі сфери політики. У перспективі передбачається скласти типологію прецедентних імен зі сфери політики на матеріалі текстів М. Веллера, а також вивчити особливості читацького сприйняття інтертекстуальних одиниць за допомогою психолінгвістичної методики.

The article examines the issues of legal support of the customs authorities of Ukraine in the field of automation of customs clearance, in particular in the implementation of customs declaration in electronic form and the steps taken to implement the concept of "electronic customs". The provisions of the main normative legal acts that play a conceptual role in the legal regulation of the activities of the customs authorities of Ukraine on informatization are analyzed. The profile legal sources which normatively fix and detail the list of functions of separate structural divisions of customs bodies of Ukraine are considered. The exceptional importance of the provisions of the International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Kyoto Convention), which occupies a special place in the development of the customs information space and considers the use of information technology as one of the fundamental principles of customs. It is noted that currently new approaches to the activities of customs authorities on the path of informatization and creation of electronic customs in general have been identified, but they are established, as a rule, on the basis of international standards and conceptual documents. It is noted that the implementation of such standards should be carried out with the help of timely adjustments to national legislation governing various activities of customs authorities. Only in this way can effective results be achieved in reform activities in the field of customs. The importance of the organization of information and legal support for the protection of information in customs, in particular in the electronic declaration in the process of customs clearance. This important aspect objectively involves the introduction of law enforcement activities of modern information technologies - methods of informatization of processes and stages of management, which in turn performs the function of ensuring management activities and, above all, the process of generating management decisions. ; У статті досліджено питання правового забезпечення діяльності митних органів України у царині автоматизації митного оформлення, зокрема під час здійснення митного декларування в електронному вигляді та кроків, що здійснюються в напрямі реалізації концепції «електронна митниця». Проаналізовано положення основних нормативно-правових актів, що відіграють концептуальну роль у правовому регулюванні діяльності митних органів України з питань інформатизації. Розглянуто профільні правові джерела, які нормативно закріплюють та деталізують перелік функцій окремих структурних підрозділів митних органів України. Окремо зазначено виняткову важливість положень Міжнародної конвенції про спрощення та гармонізацію митних процедур (Кіотської конвенції), яка займає особливе місце в розбудові інформаційного митного простору і розглядає використанняінформаційних технологій як один із фундаментальних принципів митної справи. Зазначено, що сьогодні нові підходи до діяльності митних органів на шляху інформатизації та створення електронної митниці у цілому визначені, однак вони встановлені, як правило, на основі міжнародних стандартів та концептуальних документів. Зазначено, що реалізація таких стандартів повинна проводитися за допомогою своєчасних коректив національного законодавства, що регулює різні напрями діяльності митних органів. Тільки так можна досягти ефективних результатів у реформаторській діяльності в галузі митної справи. Наголошено на важливості організації інформаційно-правового забезпечення захисту інформації в митній справі, зокрема під час електронного декларування в процесі митного оформлення. Цей важливий аспект об'єктивно передбачає впровадження в правозастосовчу діяльність митних органів сучасних інформаційних технологій - методів інформатизації процесів і етапів управління, що, своєю чергою, виконує функцію забезпечення управлінської діяльності і передусім процесу генерації управлінських рішень.

Научная значимость и своевременность изучения социальной детерминации процесса межнациональной интеграции, адаптации и социализации мигрирующего населения в трансграничные регионы России определяется глобальными процессами роста социальной мобильности в связи с экономической, политической социальной неоднородностью развития территорий РФ и мира. Оптимизация миграционной политики, снимающей бюрократические препоны мигрантам, обусловливающая социальную безопасность, гармоничное сочетание инклюзии иноэтничного населения с бережным сохранением его национального наследия, продолжает оставаться одной из важнейших научных прикладных задач, актуальной почти для всех стран мира и особенно для современной России.Целью представленного в статье анализа явилась оценка мнений экспертного сообщества шести регионов российского приграничья относительно значимости процессов миграции, ее влияния на все составляющие жизнедеятельности в регионе, выявление положительных и отрицательных последствий, роли диаспор в интеграции мигрантов и пр. Представленные результаты базируются на синтезе современных социологических теорий в области исследования процессов миграции, а также прикладной теории социально обусловленной миграционной политики, разработанной современными российскими социологами. Сделаны выводы о роли миграционных процессов в регионах, определена их специфика, выделено общее и особенное в оценках экспертов по разнообразным проявлениям адаптации и социализации мигрантов в исследуемых приграничных территориях РФ. Научная новизна предложенных результатов заключается в исследовании интеграционного и адаптационного потенциала мигрантов в контексте экспертного мнения лиц, от которых в первую очередь зависит интенсификация оптимизации миграционной политики в трансграничных регионах. Практическая значимость заключается в возможности использования специфики выявленного совокупного экспертного мнения для эффективного социального управления в области миграционной политики. ; The scientific significance and timeliness of studying the social determination of the process of ethnic integration, adaptation and socialization of the migrating population in the cross-border regions of Russia is determined by the global processes of social mobility growth due to the economic and political heterogeneity of the development of the territories of the Russian Federation and the world. Optimization of migration policy that removes bureaucratic obstacles to migrants, causes social security, harmonious combination of inclusion of non-ethnic population with careful preservation of its national heritage, continues to be one of the most important scientific applications, relevant for almost all countries of the world and especially for modern Russia.The purpose of the analysis presented in the article was to assess the opinions of the expert community of the six regions of the Russian border region on the importance of migration processes, its impact on all components of life in the region, the identification of positive and negative consequences, the role of diasporas in the integration of migrants, etc. The presented results are based on the synthesis of modern sociological theories in the study of migration processes, as well as the applied theory of socially determined migration policy developed by modern Russian sociologists. Conclusions about the role of migration processes in the regions are made, their specificity is determined, General and special in the experts' assessments of various manifestations of adaptation and socialization of migrants in the studied border areas of the Russian Federation are highlighted. The scientific novelty of the proposed results lies in the study of the integration and adaptation potential of migrants in the context of the expert opinion of persons on whom the intensification of migration policy optimization in cross-border regions primarily depends. The practical significance lies in the possibility of using the specifics of the identified aggregate expert opinion for effective social management in the field of migration policy.

Исследованы основные правоприменительные проблемы сферы публичных закупок, в том числе возможности применения механизма закупок для активизации ключевых сегментов экономики сквозь призму Соглашения о государственных закупках ВТО и Соглашения об ассоциации между Украиной и ЕС. На основании проведенного анализа предложены пути совершенствования законодательства по привлечению посредников для выполнения договоров о закупках, регулирования существенных условий этих договоров и ценообразования ; Problem Setting. In the article were considered the basic problems of enforcement of the public procurement, namely: abuse of exceptions to the legislation on procurement; offenses during the organization of tender committees and planning of procurement, preparation and approval of documentation of trading, opening, evaluation of bids and at the conclusion and execution of contracts; mistakes during the negotiation procedure; breaking the rules of how to fill complaints on procurement to the Antimonopoly committee; by changing the essential terms of the purchase agreements. For example, a fictitious commodity transactions when the customer signs the note and realizes a profit on the goods in accounting, whereby the payment is, but actually the goods to the customer are not fed or fed incomplete; avoiding procurement procedure by dividing the procurement subject into parts; purchase of goods, works and services that are not really necessary for the customer; incorrect selection by tender committee the procurement procedures; customer can nominate to participants following requirements: the availability status of VAT, annual turnover of funds in discriminatory limits, the presence of experience of working practice only with the state purchasers, the experience of supplying only identical goods (services). The actuality of the topic. Based on the previous analysis were defined the ways of improving the legislation on: 1) approval in the form of an explanation of the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine list of typical violations in the sphere of public procurement; 2) ensure the implementation of the principle of legal certainty in legislation by fixing the essential terms of the purchase agreement; 3) consolidation in the purchase agreement provisions that limit the participation of intermediaries: direct prohibition on intermediaries (commercial, retail) where a participant has to perform the contract itself; the right of provider to engage party agents to perform the procurement contract, if the customer gives prior consent. The purpose of the article. It is concluded that the lack of government support of any members or groups of species subject procurement in Ukraine is a significant problem. We can provide various grounds for state aid without violating the international commitments of Ukraine, depending on the purpose of such support, such as: small and medium enterprises; innovative enterprises; innovative products containing advanced technology solutions and patents. For this goal it is important to increase the share of non-price criteria in mixed assessment of tenders. Conclusions. Directive 2014/24/EU of the European Parliament and the EU Council «On public procurement and repealing Directive 2004/18/EU» from 02.26.2014 g. provides for state support certain categories of participants, including: (a) in respect of small and medium enterprises; (b) customers are entitled to create innovative partnerships with one or more participants. In the Agreement on Association between Ukraine and the EU such positive legal institutions are not reflected, while fixed limits on state support. Significant restrictions on regulatory support in this sector are also set in the Agreement on Government Procurement WTO

Актуальность и цели. Актуальность проблемы политического контроля обусловлена относительной новизной ее постановки в исторической науке. Актуальным является изучение исторического опыта политического контроля с точки зрения определения пределов допустимого воздействия государства средствами политического контроля на общество. Цель исследования определение предпосылок создания советской системы политического контроля. Их анализ позволяет выявить новые аспекты в вопросе о соотношении объективных и субъективных начал в советской политике. Материалы и методы. Источниковая база исследования представляет собой совокупность архивных материалов, опубликованных документов, сочинений современников рассматриваемой эпохи, авторских работ на сопряженные темы. Методологической основой исследования стали принципы историзма и научной объективности. Применение принципа историзма позволило провести ретроспективный анализ развития основных институтов и методов политического конт­роля в контексте социально-политического, экономического и культурного развития страны. Принцип научной объективности обусловил исследование проблемы вне зависимости от идеологических и иных субъективных наслоений, содержащихся как в источниках, так и в оценочных суждениях историков. Результаты. Власти царской России стремились контролировать поведение, а отчасти даже и сознание своих подданных. В результате были созданы структуры и методы работы, которые использовались затем большевиками при формировании советской системы политического контроля. К ним относятся: традиции самовластия, несформированность гражданского общества и отсутствие прочных традиций демократии и законности, опыт создания и внедрения в общество близкой к универсальной государственной идеологии, традиции дореволюционной цензуры. Выводы. Формирование и успешное функционирование советской системы политического контроля во многом обусловлены предпосылками, сложившимися в дореволюционный период. ; Background. The topicality of the problem of political control is caused by the relative novelty of its setting in a historical science. It is topical to study the historical experience of political control in terms of defining the limits of the permissible exposure of the state by means of political control in the company. The aim of the work is to determine the background of the Soviet system of political control. The analysis thereof reveals new aspects of the problem of the relationship between objective and subjective principles in Soviet policy. Materials and methods. Source base for research is a collection of archival material, published documents, works of contemporaries of this period, the author's works on the mating threads. The methodological basis of the study were the principles of historicism and scientific objecti­vity. Application of the principle of historicism allowed a retrospective analysis of the major institutions and methods of political control in the context of socio-political, economic and cultural development of the country. The principle of scientific objectivity has led to investigation of the problem, regardless of ideological or other subjective layers contained in the sources and in the value judgments of historians. Results. Tsarist Russian authorities sought to control the behavior, and to some extent even the consciousness of their subjects. The result are the structure and working methods that were used later by the Bolsheviks during the formation of the Soviet system of political control. These include: the tradition of autocracy, underdevelopment of civil society and the lack of strong traditions of democracy and the rule of law, the experience of creating and implementing into society of the close to universal state ideology, pre-revolutionary tradition of censorship. Conclusions. The design and successful operation of the Soviet system of political control were caused to a largeextent by preconditions that emerged in the pre-revolutionary period.

Рассматриваются философско-онтологические аспекты гибридизации биологических и технологических систем. Обсуждаются концептуальные установки ранних модернистских экспериментов в рамках евгеники и искусственного оплодотворения (проф. И. Иванов и С. Воронов). На материале современных художественных экспериментов с технологиями и живыми тканями (Стеларк, Д. Дэвис, Дж. Редика, Гай Бен-Ари и др.) показаны различные стратегии и онтологии гибридизации. Рассмотрен «синдром Преображенского» как сциентистская установка на создание искусственной жизни. ; The paper is devoted to ontological issues of artificial life as modification of the flesh. The author assumes that artificial life becomes possible through subversion of the biological life to the level of manipulations with raw material and creation of the hybrid forms. As a methodological foundation the author uses an original approach and applies science art (contemporary art based on scientific research and new technologies) claiming it to be a philosophical method that helps us to combine material aspects of science and technology with cultural and political meanings. The idea of hybridity is also considered as both an ontological combination of individual objects and a useful cultural metaphor for this kind of possible combinations. The author claims to prove that contemporary understanding of hybridity is rooted in the modernist world view as it is scientific transformation. Its radical version is well known to be a foundation of the Bolshevik ideology. In the paragraph ''Advent of the Hybrid'' there are two early and exemplary modernist scientific experiments of subversing the flesh described. One is made by transplantology surgeon Serge Voronov with sex glands and the other is experiments with crossbreeding humans and monkeys by zoologist Ilya Ivanov (both were seeking for effects of life longevity and rejuvenation). The analysis of these works allows the author to formulate major principles of hybridization. In the paragraph ''Artists-Bolsheviks: strategies for hybridization'' these principles are applied to the works of science artists and their ontological implications. In the project ''Ear on arm'' of Australian artist Stelarc the subversion of the flesh of the artist himself becomes a de-individualization of the human as a biological entity and moves to the search for alternative anatomic architecture of the human body. In the project ''MEART. The semi-living artist'' by science-art group Symbiotica we face the possibility of artificial life in the form of new kind of creature and development of the ontology of semi-living. Simultaneously ironical as well as absolutely literal transformation of the living organism into industrial flesh to be used as a source of energy or another utility is presented in the work of Joe Davis (project ''Making fire''), James Auger and Jimmy Loiseau (projects ''Carnivorous domestic entertainment robots'', ''Afterlife'') and Tuur van Balen (project ''Pigeon d'Or''). Festival of tissue and the magic of tissue transformation by means of biotechnology is demonstrated in the works of Julia Reodika (project ''HymNext'') and Guy Ben-Ary (project ''In Potencia''). As a conclusion the author proposes a thesis that modernist scientific ambitions and our days experiments of science art as well as the formation of a new culture of artificial life are rooted in some sort of technological unconscious that can be named ''the Preobrazhensky syndrome'' with the reference to the characters of Mikhail Bulgakov's famous novel Heart of a Dog (inspired by works of Ivanov and Voronov).

Since the 1990s considerable historical research has been done on the history of land tenure in South Africa. Much of the work has a bearing on the issue of land claims and restitution in the aftermath of South Africa's transition to a multiracial democracy. The government focused on the socio-economic development ofthe country and gave special attention to the upliftment ofpreviously disadvantaged South Africans. It became legal for South Africans to claim the right to land on which they had formerly lived. Many had been removed in terms of controversial racial policies of the former government. For obvious reasons both land owners and land claimants have since 1994 contracted historians to shed some light on the history of land tenure pertaining to single entities, and sometimes also large tracts of land. In addition, it was also expected of historians to try and shed some light on the future, based on their historical research findings. In the article attention is given to some new trends in the discipline of history in which the future features prominently. There seems to be broad support amongst theorists for the integration of natural and human/social sciences and technology studies in contemporary research. Furthermore, multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary research methodologies require of historians to take note increasingly of ongoing changes in scientific thinking with a view to synchronising our contemporary knowledge with an understanding of the past. Reference is made to complexity, actor-network theory (ANT) and a return to universal history. Within the framework of an empirical philosophical approach to the history of land tenure in the Lowveld of Mpumalanga eight theoretical statements are posited on the evolution of land tenure in Mpumalanga. These include: • private ownership of land is legally justified in South Africa; • the emergence of modern land tenure in Mpumalanga is the result of customary practices formalised in the nineteenth century; • land tenure can be understood in terms of our comprehension of assumptions about materialism; • lack of integration in former times undermined the legitimacy of black land ownership; • land tenure in the Lowveld should be seen as part of an ecology that includes the Middle Veld, Highveld and Drakensberg escarpment; • land is an actor and part of a network of interactions that emerged historically; • the value of land is constantly subject to entropy determined by its usefulness; and • traditionally land as a production factor was a mediatory actant, but since 1994 it has been transformed into a remediating actant. The final section of the article features a brief assessment of the manner in which European land tenure and Roman Law were transformed in the transition from classical times to the Middle Ages in Europe in the 3rd to 4th centuries CE. On the frontiers of the former empire erstwhile Roman citizens and their offspring had to find consensus on the legal tenets of land tenure in consultation with foreigners who settled in parts of the former empire. Many elements of Roman Law remained intact in parts of Europe. This was made possible by what Innes describes as processes of ethnogenesis. Contemplating the future of land tenure in Mpumalanga's Lowveld it is suggested that attention be given to the peripheral deconstruction of land tenure in a transforming commons in which negotiated processes of ethnogenesis, could potentially lead to a state of equilibrium. ; http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/tvg/v52n4/05.pdf

Рассматривается эволюция позиций кадетов Сибири по экономическим вопросам в период революции и Гражданской войны и их практического воплощения правительством A.B. Колчака. На материалах съездов и конференций партии, сибирской кадетской периодики и архивных документах раскрываются усиление классической либеральной тенденции в идеологии кадетов в обозреваемый период и его причины ; The events of the revolution and the Civil War caused the opinion evolution on the issues of economy of the Constitutional Democrats majority, in particular the constitutional democrats in Siberia. Traditionally, the party recognized the need of the moderate government regulation in the manner of neoliberalism ideas. But in the environment of the revolution the first unsuccessful attempts of the Provisional Government on the introduction of monopolies, fixed prices and other restriction of the economic freedom caused the criticism from the Constitutional Democrats. This criticism strengthened during the time of the Provisional Siberian government in 1918, which continued this policy during the Civil War. Constitutional Democrats press of Siberia advocated the abolishing of the private initiative and free trade limitation, denoting that such actions cause only the commodity deficit and the development of speculation. The attitude of the constitutional democrats caught with the A.V. Kolchak government and the State Economic Conference, in which the Party of People's Will had great influence. The number of state monopolies was reduced, the fixed rates and prices were abolished, in the announcements of the government the liberal course on the freedom of the market was stressed. These actions were supported by the Siberian bourgeoisie that led to their closing in with the Constitutional Democrats. In contrast to the right-wing socialistic parties the Constitutional Democrats did not consider the cooperation, but the bourgeoisie as the basis for economic rebirth. They advocated the abolishing of the penal measures against the speculation, which did not reach the main aim, and urged not to mix it with corruption. The Constitutional Democrats considered the reconstruction of the destroyed industry and the guarantee of the inflow of the commodities from abroad as the only effective measure of struggle against the speculation and commodity deficit. These views were reflected in the statements of the representatives of the party left wing, who prevailed in the Eastern division of its central committee. Under their influence the State Economic Conference in the program, which was adopted in June 1919, declared the priority of the private economy, freedom of trade, flexible custom policy, based on the taking into the consideration commodity market and engaging of foreign investments. At the same time the Constitutional Democrats and Kolchak Government did not deny social responsibility of the state and the regulation of relation between the labour and capital. Thus, the strengthening of the classical liberalism tendency in the economic program of the Siberian Constitutional Democrats in the period under review is presented. This can be explained by the unsuccessful experience of the state regulations emergency measures under A.F. Kerensriy government and Soviet power, the rapprochement of the Constitutional Democrats with bourgeoisie in the situation of socio-political polarization and Civil War, fusion of the Constitutional Democrats with the representatives of Oktiabrist party which fell into pieces at the times of revolution and represented classical right-wing liberal ideology. It permitted to the Constitutional democrats to be the consolidation center of bourgeoisie and the main political support of White movement during the reviewed period.

The article substantiates the peculiarities and expediency of influence of religious organizations on the processes of state formation in the conditions of contemporary socio-political changes in Ukraine. The historical and social nature of religion is analyzed. The main provisions on the socio-political orientation of the church's activity in the socio-historical context and in the present conditions are highlighted. The stages of becoming a church as a social institution in a democratic society, the distinction between subjective (attitude to God) and objective (historical reality) religions are considered. Approaches to the analysis of issues of interdependence of religion and politics are revealed. Possible variants of the relationship between the authorities and the church in the context of different political structures have been clarified. The importance and authority of the church in finding mutually acceptable solutions in many problematic situations in a hybrid war is emphasized.The concept of «legitimacy» is specified as an important sign of democratic power, a symbol of trust, beliefs that exist in the minds of citizens and are based on the legitimacy of the authorities, citizens' recognition of the rights and duties of both their leaders and their own. The types of legitimacy of state power are analyzed. The factors of influence of religious organizations on state formation in Ukraine are highlighted. The functions of the church as a social institution in a democratic society are considered. The main directions of optimization of influence of religious organizations on state formation are outlined: approval of the positions of the Autocephalous Ukrainian Local Church; overcoming interfaith conflicts; further positive resolution of the Ukrainian religious issue at the international level; legislative clarification of the status of the church in socio-political processes; formation of political and religious component of society. Effectiveness of interaction between religious and state institutions in the country's development, making important political decisions on a common basis were confirmed.Key words: state formation, religious organizations, state, legitimacy, church, politics, hybrid war. ; У статті обґрунтовано особливості та доцільність впливу релігійних організацій на процеси державотворення в умовах сучасних суспільно-політичних змін в Україні. Проаналізовано історично-суспільну сутність релігії. Виділено основні положення щодо суспільно-політичної спрямованості діяльності церкви в соціально-історичному контексті та в сучасних умовах. Розглянуто етапи становлення церкви як соціального інституту в демократичному суспільстві, відмінності між суб'єктивною (ставлення до Бога) та об'єктивною (історична реальність) релігіями. Розкрито підходи до аналізу питань взаємозалежності релігії та політики. Уточнено можливі варіанти взаємовідносин влади та церкви в контексті різних політичних устроїв. Наголошено на значимості та авторитетності церкви в пошуку взаємоприйнятих рішень у багатьох проблемних ситуаціях в умовах гібридної війни.Конкретизовано поняття «легітимність» як важливу ознаку демократичної влади, символ довіри, уявлення, що існують у свідомості громадян та ґрунтуються на законності влади, визнанні громадянами прав та обов'язків як її керівників, так і своїх. Проаналізовано типи легітимності державної влади. Виділено чинники впливу релігійних організацій на державотворення в Україні. Розглянуто функції церкви як соціального інституту в демократичному суспільстві. Окреслено основні напрями оптимізації впливу релігійних організацій на державотворення: утвердження позицій Автокефальної Української Помісної Церкви; подолання міжконфесійних конфліктів; подальше позитивне вирішення українського релігійного питання на міжнародному рівні; законодавчого уточнення статусу церкви в суспільно-політичних процесах; формування політично-релігійної складової суспільства. Підтверджено ефективність взаємодії релігійних та державних інституцій у розбудові країни, прийняття важливих політичних рішень на спільній основі.Ключові слова: державотворення, релігійні організації, держава, легітимність, церква, політика, гібридна війна. В статье обоснованы особенности и целесообразность влияния религиозных организаций на процессы построения государства в условиях современных общественно-политических изменений в Украине. Проанализирована историко-общественная сущность религии. Выделены основные положения по общественно-политической направленности деятельности церкви в социально-историческом контексте и в современных условиях. Рассмотрены этапы становления церкви как соціального института в демократическом обществе, различия между субъективной (отношение к Богу) и объективной (историческая реальность) религиями. Раскрыто подходы к анализу вопросов взаимозависимости религии и политики. Уточнены возможные варианты взаимоотношения власти и церкви в контексте различных политических строев. Отмечено значимость и авторитетность церкви в поиске взаимоприемлемых решений во многих проблемных ситуациях в условиях гибридной войны.Конкретизировано понятие «легитимность» как важный признак демократической власти, символ доверия, представления которые, существуют в сознании граждан и основываются на законности власти, признании гражданами прав и обязанностей как ее руководителей, так и своих. Проанализированы типы легитимности государственной власти. Выделены факторы влияния религиозных организаций на построение государства в Украине. Рассмотрены функции церкви как социального института в демократическом обществе. Определены основные направления оптимизации влияния религиозных организаций на государство: утверждение позиций Автокефальной Украинской Поместной Церкви; преодоление межконфессиональных конфликтов; дальнейшее положительное решение украинского религиозного вопроса на международном уровне; законодательного уточнения статуса церкви в общественно-политических процессах; формирование политико-религиозной составляющей общества. Подтверждена эффективность взаимодействия религиозных и государственных институтов в развитии страны, принятию важных политических решений на совместной основе.Ключевые слова: построение государства, религиозные организации, государство, легитимность, церковь, политика, гибридная война. The article substantiates the peculiarities and expediency of influence of religious organizations on the processes of state formation in the conditions of contemporary socio-political changes in Ukraine. The historical and social nature of religion is analyzed. The main provisions on the socio-political orientation of the church's activity in the socio-historical context and in the present conditions are highlighted. The stages of becoming a church as a social institution in a democratic society, the distinction between subjective (attitude to God) and objective (historical reality) religions are considered. Approaches to the analysis of issues of interdependence of religion and politics are revealed. Possible variants of the relationship between the authorities and the church in the context of different political structures have been clarified. The importance and authority of the church in finding mutually acceptable solutions in many problematic situations in a hybrid war is emphasized.The concept of «legitimacy» is specified as an important sign of democratic power, a symbol of trust, beliefs that exist in the minds of citizens and are based on the legitimacy of the authorities, citizens' recognition of the rights and duties of both their leaders and their own. The types of legitimacy of state power are analyzed. The factors of influence of religious organizations on state formation in Ukraine are highlighted. The functions of the church as a social institution in a democratic society are considered. The main directions of optimization of influence of religious organizations on state formation are outlined: approval of the positions of the Autocephalous Ukrainian Local Church; overcoming interfaith conflicts; further positive resolution of the Ukrainian religious issue at the international level; legislative clarification of the status of the church in socio-political processes; formation of political and religious component of society. Effectiveness of interaction between religious and state institutions in the country's development, making important political decisions on a common basis were confirmed.Key words: state formation, religious organizations, state, legitimacy, church, politics, hybrid war.

The crisis of authority in the U.S.S.R. (1988 - July 1991).
After a preliminary reference to the ideological options open to Mikhail Gorbachev, initiator of the break-up of Stalinism, and the mistrust which be inspires, both among some of his opponents as well as among right-wing conservatives, the author considers the recent evolution of the Soviet Union, from the monopoly of Party rule to the difficult birth of a pluralistic regime.
He first raises the question of the Party's attitude to perestroika. Article 6 of the Constitution of 1977, which aknowledges the leading role of the Party, was reluctantly annulled by Gorbachev, but annuled it was, thus leaving the way open for pluralism. Condemnation of factionalism within the body of the Party has not prevented the emergence of various "tendencies" (particularly the democratic Platform and the marxist Platform) which find official expression. Similarly, political and social groupings, independent of authority, began to proliferate : from groupings moved by a common principle, for example tne Safeguarding of the national heritage, or the defense of the environment, they rapidly became popular fronts, lending the system a de facto pluralism which would only later enjoy a de jure existence.
This spontaneous development took shape first of all in the Baltic countries, and then with increasing momentum spread to all the republics. In parallel with this, the communist Party leadership initiated a reform of the political system, which found expression in the semi-free elections of March 1989, marked by the defeat of various party and State notables. This was the beginning of a multi-party system, there having been two major opposing tendencies during the campaign for the regional elections in the spring of 1990 : the democratic Russia bloc (liberal) and the patriotic Russian bloc (conservative), surrounded by a multiplicity of organizations of the most diverse and constantly evolving tendencies. The charge levelled against them is that they have no autonomous ideas or initiative, and have only one single programme : mass rejection of the Party apparatus. Some observers are of the opinion that a deep schism will develop within the CPSU, and that this will give rise to a real multi-party system. The first stage of this development has just begun, with the movement for democratic reforms, which was launched in July 1991 by frontline reformers.
The other major problem which arises is that of the preservation or the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The authority of the Center is in question, and already six republics have decided to leave the union, proclaiming their sovereignty loud and long (the three Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia and Moldavia). But although the right of scission is officially acknowledged, its implementation is a vast battleground (see the law of 3rd April 1990). The upsurge of centrifugal forces has led the republics, one after the other,
to proclame their sovereignty (primacy of republican laws over federal laws, economic autonomy, ownership of the soil and mineral deposits, etc.) or their outright indépendance. Autonomous Republics and territories followed suit, opposing the authorities of the republics to which they belonged. Inter-ethnic conflict broke out all over.
The dispute over federal authority led to a "way over laws", setting the Centre at odd with republics resolved to insist on recognition of their rights (ownership of all the ressources found on their territory, freedom to exploit these resources, etc.). In this context, the question of finance and the budget had pride of place, together with that of material and technological supplies. The entire supply system was disorganized, with the republics refusing to carry out the orders of the State, or to deliver consumers' goods outside of their frontiers, in order to avoid a worsening of their own shortages. The Soviet government tried to combat the supply problems, at least in part, by setting up commodity markets. A series of economic programms was worked out, including V. Pavlov's anti-crisis plan (April 1991) which was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, but it is not entirely clear how the economic responsabilities will be apportioned among the Central authorities, the republics and the lower-rank administrative bodies, and what will be the share of the state and private sectors. Also, it is not known how he proposes to overcome the present crisis, and how long this will take.
Another major source of discord is the army and the police. The republics demand the right to raise armed forces, and to assume the responsability for maintaning order within their territory. Certain of them, who have been the victims of attacks by the special forces of the Ministry of Interior, the OMON, have organized militias and defense groups, wich are virtually republican armies in embryo.
In the end, there was an overriding necessity for redefining the Union, and the first version of the new Union Treaty was adopted by referendum on the 17th March 1991. A slightly modified version of it was published on the 19th June, but neither the one nor the other gives a very clear idea of the respective areas of competence and the common areas of competence of the Centre and the constituent republics of the Union (and still less of the fate in store for secessionist republics). On the other hand, one can be sure that the Treaty will be the source of innumerable controversies and disputes, especially on the particularly explosive issue of the budget, taxation and the distribution of ressources. In the final part, the author ventures some thoughts on the future. He sets perestroika in the continuing context of the history of the Russian empire, recalling that the demands made (individual freedoms and democracy, self-determination and decolonization) were already those of the protagonists of the Russian democratic revolution of February-March 1917, which was "taken over" by the Bolshevik coup d'Etat. Now that the empire has fallen victim to its contradictions and weaknesses, and finally disintegrated, what will take its place ? The cure prescribed by the Union Treaty seems ill-adapted to the task, and several outcomes are possible : a resolute commitment to the way of democracy and decolonization, a return to an authoritarian régime but one establishing a market economy, the option of passivity while waiting for a solution "which will come of itself, or a return to thorough-going, tough dictatorship accompanied by a blood bath. If Gorbachev does not once more take his courage in both hands, and proceeds to decolonize the empire, however slow and piecemeal the process, others will do it for him. And in that case, we may fear the worst.

Short synopsis and layout of Chapters of the thesis entitled, A study of Gelugpa sect with comparison to Nyingma Pa sect of Buddhism in TibetAround 2500 years ago, a prince of Skya clan rose against the anguish of life & death and determined to find out the way through which these torments end. That prince was Siddhartha; and whole world came to know him by his enlightened name; Buddha; his path became famous after his name Buddhism. Centuries gone, millennium changed its numbers; still the path showed by the Skya prince is guiding us towards every solution of problem. Today, according to latest sources, nearly 18 countries are more or less Buddhist countries and every fourth person of the world is Buddhist by faith. In past 2500 years, Buddhism crossed all geographical boundaries, spread over continents, touches every sphere of our lives, enjoyed royal patronage as well as sometimes-lethal disservice. However, one thing that makes it above all is that it served the goods. Everywhere it went, it acquired local colours, amalgamated with the local beliefs and reached the culmination theory of the master, Lord Buddha. Nevertheless, some countries were destined to play a little more than merely following the Buddhist rites and rituals. Tibet is one among these countries.Though Tibetan Buddhism is being studied all over, the world at research level but very few research works are being done at home (India). Tibetan has lost their homeland and in India, the Sthaviravdina, the orthodox school of thought was/is in vogue with the exception of the Himalayan region where the Mahayana is being practised since long. So many research works have been done by the scholars from United States and other countries, but most of them are limited to the translation works of the Tibetan Lamas visiting to States or elsewhere. Jeffery Hopkins, Alex Wayman, Michael Rosh is some of the names which have already gain popularity in this regard. It is noteworthy that Buddha taught everyone who came and asked for it. He never attempted to attract people into his new order or he never tried to formulate a new religion. As A K Warder has noted, It is most characteristic of Buddha that he always adapts his talk to the person he is conversing with. His courtesy in argument result from this: it is certainly not his way to denounce the opinions, practice of another to his face, and challenge him to justify them. His method rather is to seem to adopt the others point of view and than by question and answer to improve it until a position, compatible with his own has been arrived at. Thus, he leads his partner in discussion towards the truth as he has discovered it, but so that the partner seems himself to continue his own quest, in whatever form he had taken, and to arrive at higher truth he had previously been aware of, or more convincing moral ideas. Buddhism is the third largest religious system of the world (beside Christianity and Islam at the first two places) and it is the only religious system, which originated in Indian sub-continent and spread all over the world. To know the social, political and economic history of India during the time of Buddha i.e. 6th century BC, there are several sources. However, either to know the ideas and philosophical order of that time, we have to rely upon the testament within the said system and the literature or that of archaeological remains that tell many ideas that can be decipher to date. Both left the scope of interpretation and speculation, which is although, needed to some extent; sometimes portray a shadow over the crux of the systems of ancient era. Nevertheless, I have chosen to discuss about the two religious order of Buddhism of Tibet. The idea itself seems to be very delightful but in the presence of meagre resource materials often discourages a fruitful research and applying the modern research methodology. However, research methodology is not only to solve the problem but quite often to raise a problem instead solving them is also a method to invite further research and hence itself is called an independent research.Tibet, one of the highest countries in the world had received Buddhism from India in 7th century AD when Padmasambhava established the monastic order there. That branch of Buddhism was known as Nyingma or the Red Hats. That was under the reign of King SrongTsan Gampo and the source of establishing the Buddhism was the Indian schools. Besides that, the Chinese school of sudden enlightenment, which was somewhat different from the gradual school of Indian Buddhism, also tried to establish its firm feet in the land of snow. However, the Indian Buddhist pundit defeated the Hashang, Chinese teacher of Buddhism and it was a landmark in the history of Buddhism in Tibet because this decided the way in which Tibet would follow the Buddhism in future. However, this is not highlighted in the historical record of Tibet, but this does not undermine its importance.Centuries passed and the Buddhism after one persecution by the Lang dharma, revived. The newer sects came up with fresh ideas, but the older sect (Nyingma) continued to influence not only the folk wisdom, but the aristocrats too were the followers of Nyingma sect at the time of the introduction of the Gelug sect or the Yellow Hat sect by TsongkhaPa. In my present thesis, I have tried an attempt to described both Nyingma and Gelug through the eyes of modern research methodology. Side by side, I kept the descriptive ideas of the sects where it was needed to highlight the ideas of the Buddhism in the said context. But the presence of different practices itself show the comparison. At that juncture, I have only taken the task of illustrating the facts. However, I have tried to describe Buddhism in general and the two sects in particular in their full length.In the first chapter, I have dealt with the History of Buddhism in India which in my opinion needed more than ever because either the material available now days gives one only an idea about how a prince of Sakya clan achieved enlightenment nearly 26 centuries ago. Or it describes the Buddhist philosophy with all of its technicalities and that too in extol and worshiping manner. Surprisingly sometimes, this attracts even the scholars from not only the non-Buddhist fields, but from the discipline itself. I have tried to be cautious while describing the ideas of the sects and therefore, I have tried to put the historical Buddha and his teaching in one chapter in a simplest possible manner. That will create an interest in both the mind of the Buddhist scholars and show the Buddha from the Tibetan point of view that is scarcely done with the use of research methodology. For this, I have started with the life sketch of the prince Siddhartha from his birth to enlightenment and then the important happenings in the life of Lord Buddha. Writing this, I tried to clarified that whom do we are calling Buddha? A Sakya prince or the emanation of supreme God: one is historical personality who, through his penances and mortification got the way to salvation, the other one who out of his great compassion toward humanity emanates himself for the benefit of sentient beings to show them the path of freedom from all sufferings. In my opinion, here lies the difference between Mahayana and Sthaviravda school of Buddhism. The former claims to be the original successor of Buddhism from 6th century BC and asserts that the way prince Siddhartha got enlightenment; everybody can get it and become Arhat. On the other hand, the highest goal of Mahayana is Buddhahood and the supreme Buddha post is not achievable by a human being. The list of Pli canons is also given in this chapter and the name of six contemporary thinkers of Buddha is listed with their respective philosophies. Renunciation, Bodhicitta and the Right view, these 3 are the base of Mahayana theory of unyavda or the theory of Void, which originated though in India, found its firm feet in the land of snow. These points have been dealt in such a manner that while the research methodology was justified, the traditional Buddhist belief was also taken care of and even a common reader can infer the same conclusion that a Buddhist practitioner found after practicing it for a long duration.In the second chapter, I have put forth the History of Buddhism in Tibet with the background of the subject matter of my thesis. This chapter covers the inception of Buddhism in Tibet during 7th century and; from the first dissemination of it up to the establishment of the Gelugpa School by Je TsongkhP. In addition, I have given a short description of the history of Tibet up to the present time for the continuity of the subject matter. The contents of this chapter cover the history of Buddhism chronologically. In the land of snow, it was really a Herculean task for Padmasambhava to establish Buddhism. This work can only be done by the assimilation of the local beliefs and their gods in Buddhism and Padmasambhava has successfully done so with the help of his other Indian companions like Kamalsheela and others along with the royal patronage of King SrongTsan Gampo. A country following Shamanist practices has seen first time the logic-based religion that was most powerful and widespread at that time all over the Asia and its fragrance was crossed the globe. No wonder Padmasambhava is considered as second Buddha among Tibetans. The introduction of Buddhism in Tibet is linked closely with the introduction of literature as the work was got started in the country by the minister of SrongTsan Gampo, the great Thonmi Sambhota. So, a brief history of Tibetan language & literature was inevitable. Therefore, I have given the Tibetan Alphabets and their Sanskrit and Roman equivalent for the record along with the historical background of the Tibetan language. Here one point I want to be noted. While writing this thesis, I face two major difficulties. One was the Tibetan U-Chan fonts for the computer and the second the method of Romanization of Tibetan and Sanskrit words. For the first, I applied two types of U-Chan fonts namely, U-Chan TTF and L Tibetan. For the second one, I have followed the most accepted form and wherever I feel to express my ideas in either script, I did so. That is why the Romanization is not strict way as of Dr. Snell Grove has typed in his works with the diacritic marks or other with equivalents. After this, I took the historical background of the Chinese Hshng Mahayana that advocated sudden enlightenment and its clash with the Indian school of Buddhism, which was in favour of graduated path to salvation; this shows the reason why the graduated path is being practiced in Tibet and not the Chinese counterpart of it. Then I took the destruction of Buddhism in Tibet by Lang dharma and the resurgence of Buddhism after more than 300 years of being in background. Then the Sharma Schools of thought appeared, the latest of which is Gelugpa, which command good favour among the Tibetan till today. The founder of this sect was TsongkhP. I have put the TsongkhP and GelugP in a separate chapter because of its comprehensiveness, which was the demand of my research topic.In the third chapter, the Padmasambhava and Nyingm School has been placed with all of its possible contents. Firstly, I have taken Padmasambhava and the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet, and then the main characteristics and the salient features of this school of thought were placed under the different sub-chapters.In the fourth chapter, I have continued from the previous chapter about Nyingms and dealt with their practices through which they are known. Therefore, I name it after one of the greatest and famous practice, Dzogchen. Hence the chapter is named as, Terton and other practices in Nyingma. Because of the inbuilt nature of Nyingma sect to adopt Tntric practices, I have tried to put light on the Tntric practices specially.After this, in a short chapter, I have tried to explain why the sectarian tendencies came out from a disciplined system like Buddhism that is considered to be the most logical and scientific in its approach. The content of this chapter, though very short in the number of pages, carry very high value to understand the birth of an ism within the ism. Though I have named it, Emergence of Schism in Buddhism, but in this chapter some other general topics were also covered which are the answers to the curiosities in the field of Tibetan Buddhism. For example, I have given a very brief account of the translation work of the Tibetan literature in Tibet and after 1959, in India and abroad.In the sixth chapter, namely TsongkhP and the Gelugp school of Tibet, I have given the salient features and practices of the sect. Why the actual need to establish this sect was felt by its founder TsongkhaPa when he was already mastered all the then time philosophies through other prevalent sects. The role of Rendw in the educational and philosophical life of TsongkhaPa is evident in all the literature, which TsongkhaPa wrote. In fact when we go through the ascetic life of TsongkhaPa, he seems to be much more powerful than his settled life when his name became famous than himself. Wandering in the search of knowledge through debates, asking every established master to impart knowledge, doing penances, these all create a gamut around TsongkhPs personality that every researcher inspire for. This is more relevant today when we see the education has become a means nothing more than for earning the bread. Also, the followers of TsongkhaPa (with due respect) have indulged themselves in the very politics, which TsongkhaPa had forbid in his lifetime.The content of the GelugP School needed more elaborate study to discuss, so I divided it into two chapters and the chapter-VIIth in its succession, I have tried to highlight the philosophy and ethics of GelugPs, which they are famous for. I named this chapter The stages of path and other teachings of GelugP. The biggest contribution in this regard by the founder of this sect, TsongkhaPa was the Lam Rim teachings. TsongkhaPa during his study time engaged in debate with almost all the teacher of prevalent school of Buddhism in Tibet, and found that debates are the best way to develop the intellect of a person. So he stressed very much on study of the books in his Order and hence started the tradition of Lam-Rim teachings. He himself wrote a big volume named Lam-rim Chen-Mo () and tried to put all the philosophical teachings of Buddha that were required to lead a sanctimonious and virtuous life according to Vinaya. When he found the book to be too voluminous to remember, he prepared a précis form of the book and named it Lam-Tso Nam Sum () which became so famous that the Gelugpa or the yellow hats were sometime called the followers of Lam Tso Nam Sum. I have tried to brief the teaching content of Lam Tso Nam Sum in this chapter. In addition, I have given at the end of this chapter, why the Prsngika Mdhyamika () has an upper hand not only over the other three main school of Buddhism but over the Svatntrika Mdhyamika () too. The eighth and the final chapter is conclusion where the findings of the research work have been stated.I have chosen some colour plates to illustrate what is being said in the test of the chapter. I have also taken care of that the entire collection must represent different traditional source and of different type. This I have done to acquaint my thesis with the different architectural and archaeological remains, which though is not part of my thesis, elucidate Buddhism in much exemplified way.At the end, I have added some photographs that will be of helping material and show the historic and religious personalities in visual.Finally, I want to quote averse from the Dhammapada which describes the Buddhassana or the law of Buddha, with the presupposition that if this verse is being taken care of, be it any sect of sub-sect of Buddhism any where at the globe, Buddhism will succeed in achieving its goal.

The oxygen evolution reaction during the photosynthesis process performed in plants, algae and cyanobacteria is possibly one of the most important reactions on the planet that sustain most life on our planet. Understanding the structure and function of the "engine of life", the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) in the active site of Photosystem II (PSII), has been one of the great and persistent challenges of modern science. Over the past decades, immense progress has been achieved in understanding the structure and mechanism of photosynthetic reactions. This progress is in large part due to the refinement of preparative protocols, X-Ray Diffractometry (XRD), site-directed mutagenesis, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, the coming of age of X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL) diffractometry and computational approaches in the investigation of PS II. Nevertheless, key mechanistic and electronic details of water oxidation still remain highly contentious. Elucidation of these details is complicated by the fact that the active site of PSII exists in four natural metastable oxidation states, as well as putative unnatural forms that are plausibly induced during experimental investigation. The leading motivation of the scientific community studying PSII is ultimately the development of new catalysts and even bio-inspired solar cells, that will produce clean and sustainable energy for the world. Over the last hundred years, approximately 80% of worldwide energy consumption has been based on fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas. However, humankind now has to face the consequences arising from this dependence on fossil fuels. Worldwide energy consumption is expected to increase by over 50% by the mid-2000s (see Fig. 0.1). Because fossil fuels are finite and regional around the world, it is greatly challenging to ensure that this demand can be met, in the face of possible political tensions and other potential problems with energy supplies. Due to the usage of fossil fuels, large quantities of emissions, e.g., CO2, SO2, and oxide particles, are the predominant reasons for global warming and severe pollution. Recent reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change emphasized the necessity of decreasing CO2 emissions on a global scale to the zero level before the next century. These arguments make the development of sustainable and carbon-neutral energy technologies one of the most urgent challenges facing humankind all over the world. Wind, ocean currents, tides, and waves are all potential sources of energy, but by far the most abundant renewable energy source on the planet is solar energy: solar illumination on Earth every hour is greater than the worldwide energy consumption for a whole year [35]. Therefore, the conversion and utilization of solar energy is a promising solution for energy problems. An intriguing potential solution to the expected shortfall in energy supplies is artificial photosynthesis [108], whereby light energy can be stored in chemical bonds and, hence, be made available as fuels [18, 200, 19, 364]. Synthetic molecular and heterogeneous manganese analogues still struggle to mimic the function and performance of the OEC. This is partly because these distinctive features are not intrinsic to the Mn4CaO5 core of the OEC but depend on its environment and result from elaborate gating and regulation mechanisms for coordinating the coupling of proton-electron transfer and the access, delivery, binding, positioning, activation, and coupling of substrate waters to form dioxygen. The high level of geometric and electronic control, both spatial and temporal, extends along the whole catalytic cycle and involves simultaneously the Mn4CaO5 cluster, its first coordination sphere, and the protein matrix that controls the flow of electrons, protons, substrates, and products. From the side of theoretical methods great progresses have been made in recent years. Due to the success of the density functional theory (DFT), not only in the field of solid state physics, but also on liquids and molecular compounds, it is possible to obtain the electronic structure of few hundreds atoms with an acceptable computational effort. Using the information provided by the experiments as starting point, it is possible to employ DFT to refine the geometries in relationship with the electron ground-state or different electronic states, to calculate the electron and spin density for a given system and to estimate spectroscopic properties. The coupling of DFT with molecular dynamics also allows us to perform ab-initio molecular dynamics of large systems at finite temperature to fully consider entropic contributions and low-energy conformational changes. Computational techniques can also provide considerable support in the analysis and interpretation of the complex IR spectra of such biological systems. In this thesis, the molecular and electronic structures of the multinuclear manganese containing bioinorganic system together with oxygen-evolving complex of PS II are investigated using DFT-based methods for the theoretical modeling of vibrational spectra in the gas phase by normal mode analysis and molecular dynamics simulations. Research on biological water oxidation traverses scientific fields and concentrates the efforts of a multitude of experimental and theoretical approaches. Different methods of investigation naturally lead to distinct views on the OEC. These are often complementary but at times are contradictory, and it is not always obvious whether the contradictions already exist in the data or arise from their suggested interpretations. Nevertheless, the overarching goals are common to all experimental and theoretical studies. These are not limited to the geometric and electronic structure of the cluster in each state of the cycle but encompass the role of the protein matrix, the channels, and secondary components of the second sphere of the cluster, such as the chloride ions. Chapter I of the thesis considers in detail the progress that have been done so far in structural and spectroscopic studies of OEC and its synthetic mimics given together with the general introduction on photosynthetic reactions occurring in the leaf. Theoretical background of the computational methods used in present work is given in detail in Chapter II. In this thesis, we explored the potentialities and the reliability of different state-of-the-art computational techniques for the investigation of the structural and vibrational properties of complex macromolecular materials of biochemical importance. The use of FTIR spectroscopy to probe the structure and function of the OEC complex in PS II has a long history. The synthesis of a very close structural mimic of the catalytic center has opened up the opportunity to perform a comprehensive and parallel study of both the natural and artificial compounds and of their vibrational modes. Chapter III is dedicated to the detailed assignment of the bands in the midand low-frequencies region by static and dynamic vibrational spectra calculations of the unique biomimetic complex. The detailed parallel analysis between the Natural and Synthetic complexes also provided a comprehensive characterization of the vibrational fingerprints in such class of cubane-like Mn-based compounds and is reported in Chapter IV. In Chapter V of the thesis we discussed the electronic and structural properties of the novel Mn4O4 synthetic compound mimicking the EPR spectroscopic nature of OEC in S2 state.