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Ten years ago, on a blustery March morning, the author found himself in front of Moscow's infamous Lubyanka prison, the dreaded home of the KGB, where thousands of political prisoners were jailed, interrogated, and tortured. He had come to find the file of his father, a man he did not know -- a man who, when he was arrested in the hellish days of Joseph Stalin's purges, was not even half the age he is now. The dark central stairwell in the Lubyanka annex where he was directed was barely illuminated; a sole light bulb hung above the second-floor landing that housed the reading room. It's a memory of a time and a politics long ago. Yet when he looks at his picture, he's so young that he can't help but feel oddly protective -- if he were his own son. It pains him that he died, of starvation and cold, unremarked, only to be buried in the wastelands of the Russian Tundra. Adapted from the source document.

While the concept of friendship has been largely invisible within Western political debate, in the international political domain, 'friendship' and the language of friends have been prominent in treaties and alliances between nations. Database searches on the topic of 'politics and friendship' locate predominantly references concerning relationships between states. However, it has been war and enmity rather than friendship that has dominated analysis in international relations literature. In this article we provide a history of international treaties, focusing in particular on those named as friendship treaties. We will discuss the use of concepts and terminology related to friendship and the nomenclature associated with international alliances. It will be argued that friendship is more a tool of public relations and spin, rather than diplomacy and peace-building, and the cynical use of friendship does not sit easily with the Nehruvian concept of friendship as an important method of diplomacy that can act as a path to peace, goodwill and understanding between states and nations. Adapted from the source document.

Argues that globalization is here to stay in spite of rumors of its demise. The contention that globalization is not new but simply the continuation of a long-term process is challenged to point out its many unprecedented characteristics & the never-seen-before possibilities it has opened for humanity. The enormous quantitative changes in economic, cultural, & military components wrought by globalization have created qualitative changes. Claims that globalization is designed to spread American values/interests are belied in light of the global spread of such things as Japanese sushi, Latin American telenovelas, & fundamentalist Islam. It is maintained that globalization has paved the way for new rivals to contest American hegemony & power politics continue to thrive. Consideration is given to debates about the link between globalization & inequality & whether globalization has made the world a safer place. The most dangerous deficit currently facing humanity is described as the "gap between the need for effective collective action at the global level & the ability of the international community to satisfy that need.". J. Lindroth

President George W. Bush, National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice, & Secretary of State Colin Powell claim that their ideology is "the new realism," The authors note several problems with this. First, the ideology of realism itself is shown not to work. Realism is the idea that military power is the driving force in the world. Experience has shown that other factors -- such as economic globalization, political democratization, particular belief systems, & international law & institutions -- impact global politics. Therefore realism is a simplistic model. Bush's use of the realism title may be an attempt to give the administration an image of truth & honesty, in contrast to the previous administration. Another theory for the use of the title is that more military emphasis is actually needed in certain cases, such as the unwillingness of the US to mediate in the Middle East. The "new realism" title may continue, but what is needed more then a label is a sensible foreign policy. R. Larsen

A posthumous discussion of the political & scientific significance & implications of Karl Popper's philosophy of science. Following a brief review of Popper's life & achievements, it is argued that he has been misunderstood & misrepresented by both admirers & critics. This is partially attributed to the radical nature of Popper's philosophy: Popper challenged many of the presumptions about knowledge & inquiry & presented a form of science & philosophy that was counterintuitive to many. The most significant of these counterintuitive claims was the suggestion that knowledge does not require justification or foundations. According to Popper, the most important knowledge rests on hypotheses that must be continually challenged, critiqued, & transformed. Therefore, recognition of ignorance is privileged over (illusory) certainty. In terms of politics, these principles encourage a form of government that is constantly exposed to criticism & change. Further, Popper suggests that democracy is the most just form of government due to its capacity to recognize & act on the critiques & claims of shifting public opinion & beliefs. 18 References. Adapted from the source document.

THE POLITICS OF PLATO'S "REPUBLIC" HAS BEEN ALL BUT UNIVERSALLY CONDEMNED BY MODERN LIBERAL READERS AS TOTALLY AND ODIOUSLY INIMICAL TO DEMOCRATIC IDEALS. PLATO'S PROPOSALS FOR GOVERNMENT BY AN UNELECTED ELITE, FOR CENSORSHIP AND INDOCTRINATION, AND FOR OCCUPATIONAL RESTRICTIONS ARE SEEN, AT BEST, AS STIFLING FREEDOM AND INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE AND, AT WORST, AS TOTALITARIAN. IT HAS SELDOM OR NEVER BEEN NOTICED HOW MUCH HIS POLITY RESEMBLES THE UNITED STATES, FOR BETTER OR WORSE. AMERICAN DEMOCRACY, PAST AND PRESENT, HAS ENDORSED MOST OF THE BASIC POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE "REPUBLIC." IF OFTEN ONLY TACITLY, AMERICANS RECOGNIZE NATURAL INEQUALITIES AMONG PEOPLE; THAT SOME ARE MORE FIT THAN OTHERS FOR SOME OCCUPATIONS, INCLUDING GOVERNING; AND THAT INDOCTRINATION AND CENSORSHIP ARE DESIRABLE IN SOME CIRCUMSTANCES. MOST IMPORTANT, THOUGH LITTLE RECOGNIZED OUTSIDE POLITICAL THEORY, IS FACT THAT THE UNITED STATES, LIKE MOST MODERN DEMOCRACIES, HAS A GUARDIANSHIP FORM OF GOVERNMENT, COMPARABLE TO THAT OUTLINED IN THE "REPUBLIC," IN WHICH THE ELECTORAL FRANCHISE HAS LITTLE SIGNIFICANCE.

International audience ; Nowadays electromagnetic environment is rapidly expanding in frequency domain and wireless services extend in terms of covered area. European electromagnetic compatibility regulations refer to limit values regarding emissions, as well as procedures for determining susceptibility of the vehicle. Approval procedure for a series of cars is based on determining emissions/immunity level for a few vehicles picked randomly from the entire series, supposing that entire vehicle series is compliant. During immunity assessment, the vehicle is not subjected to real perturbation sources, but exposed to electric/magnetic fields generated by laboratory equipment. Since current approach takes into account only partially real situation regarding perturbation sources, this paper proposes an active system for determining electromagnetic parameters of vehicle's environment, that implements a logical diagram for measurement, satisfying the imposed requirements. This new and original solution is useful for EMC assessment of hybrid and electrical vehicles.

This report presents the main results from a comparative research project funded by the European Commission, the Fourth Framework Programme, TSER, for the period 1997 to 1999. Hammer, Torild has co-ordinated the project. The report is based on different articles and reports, which have been written individually by the different research partners in the project. These are articles that have been submitted or are forthcoming in different international journals. They are based on the same data set and the same project. This way all the articles will be available together in a common report. The analyses are based on a new comparative data set in northern Euope. Representative samples (2000-4000 in each country) of unemployed youth (18-24 years) were drawn from the national unemployment register and interviewed 12 months later in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Denmark and Scotland. In Ireland, the research team used the ECHP data (European Community Household Panel) instead of the same age group in nine countries. The different articles explore the relationship between unemployment and marginalisation: gendered marginalisation, financial marginalisation and political marginalisation of unemployed youth. The articles also analyse the relationship between unemployment and different dimensions of social exclusion, mental health and social support. Moreover, two of the articles focus upon the transition from unemployment to employment and from unemplyment to education. Together, these articles should give a broad picture and new knowledge about youth unemployment in northern Europe. Contents Jan Carle: Method and research design. Ira Malmberg-Heimonen and Ilse Julkunen: Gender, family context and labour-market involvement in six Northern European Countries. Thordis J. Sigurdardottir and Thoroddur Bjarnason: Psychological distress among youth during unemployment and beyond. Hammer, Torild: The Probability of Re-entering Education among Unemployed Youth. A Comparative Study of Six Countries in Northern Europe. Jan Carle: Social and political activity among unemployed young people in six northern European countries. Hans Uldall-Poulsen: Differences between Unemployment Insurance Benefit Claimants and Social Assistance Benefit Claimants in Nordic Countries. Andy Furlong and Fred Cartmel: Does long-term youth unemployment lead to social and economic exclusion? Evidence from six European countries. Helen Russell and Philip J. Oö''Connell: Getting a Job in Europe: The Transition from Unemployment to Employment among Young People in Nine Eruopean Countries. Anne Hammarstrøm: Is unemployment correlated with ill health and drug use? A comparative analysis between six north European countries.

While constructing market economies on the ruins of the central planning systems from theeastern part of Germany to the Pacific coast of Russia, many countries have faced a number ofsimilar problems in the field of the solid waste management. But in the so called 'economiesin transition' these problems were treated in different ways,The group of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe on their way to the EU membershipadopted the European principles of the SWM. They were to find an adequate solution to theessential waste problems earlier and in the very limited time period, On the other hand, thecountries that now belong to the CIS, had somewhat put the problems of the SWM aside,therefore the process is in the most cases yet in its primary stage still. On their way to theeffective SWM, these countries often orient towards the European model as well, thoughhaving more freedom in adapting it to the national circumstances.The objective of the paper presented is to analyze the common problems of the countries intransition, evaluate the effectiveness of the European shaped solutions for the EU newmember states and highlight the positive and negative points to be aware of when reformingSWM in the CIS countries. ; While constructing market economies on the ruins of the central planning systems from theeastern part of Germany to the Pacific coast of Russia, many countries have faced a number ofsimilar problems in the field of the solid waste management. But in the so called 'economiesin transition' these problems were treated in different ways,The group of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe on their way to the EU membershipadopted the European principles of the SWM. They were to find an adequate solution to theessential waste problems earlier and in the very limited time period, On the other hand, thecountries that now belong to the CIS, had somewhat put the problems of the SWM aside,therefore the process is in the most cases yet in its primary stage still. On their way to theeffective SWM, these countries often orient towards the European model as well, thoughhaving more freedom in adapting it to the national circumstances.The objective of the paper presented is to analyze the common problems of the countries intransition, evaluate the effectiveness of the European shaped solutions for the EU newmember states and highlight the positive and negative points to be aware of when reformingSWM in the CIS countries.

The Three Seas Initiative (I3M) is an ambitious geopolitical project comprising twelve EU Member States located between the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea: from North to South, a wide range encompassing Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovenia and Croatia. It is a region with more than 25% of the EU's territory and about 22% of its population, but with a much lower economic representation. I3M aims to promote the development of central European infrastructures with a view to bringing this region closer to the economic development levels of other European countries. The I3M aimed for development of large projects of regional infrastructure in three major fields: energy, transport (road and rail) and the digital field (communications). The geopolitical importance of this project is immediately evident from the fact that many of these countries are landlocked states with no access to the sea. These infrastructures will now give them access to three seas and thus contribute to greater independence and room for maneuver in their policies. This region, situated in the center of the European continent, one of the main energy markets of the future, is also the scene of a very strong trade struggle between Russia, with its natural gas supplies, and the US, with its growing production of shale gas. The projects launched by I3M are therefore of greater economic and geopolitical importance, although they still have to ensure appropriate funding. Although the Three Seas Fund (TSF) was created), with a duration of 30 years and which aims to secure a financing of 100 billion euros (from an initial investment of the Member States in the amount of 5 billion euros), The truth is that much will depend on the support given by the EU and the countries interes ted in these projects, such as the US and China (link to the silk route). Some European countries have seen the birth of this Initiative with some suspicion, such as Germany, which has increasingly been focusing on Nordstream II, and Russia, which accuse their promoters of representing US interests on the European continent. Regardless of the controversies raised, I3M seems to be a form of regional cooperation that makes perfect sense and fully integrates into the spirit of European integration, seeking for its peoples the same development as the other Member States.

Background & Aims: The burden of liver disease in Europe continues to grow. We aimed to describe the epidemiology of liver diseases and their risk factors in European countries, and identify public health interventions that could impact on these risk factors to reduce the burden of liver disease. Methods: As part of the HEPAHEALTH project, commissioned by EASL, we extracted information on historical and current prevalence and mortality from national and international literature and databases on liver disease in 35 countries in the WHO European region, as well as historical and recent prevalence data on their main determinants; alcohol consumption, obesity and hepatitis B and C virus infections. We extracted information from peer-reviewed and grey literature to identify public health interventions targeting these risk factors. Results: The epidemiology of liver disease is diverse and countries cluster with similar pictures, although the exact composition of diseases and the trends in risk factors which drive them is varied. Prevalence and mortality data indicate that increasing cirrhosis and liver cancer may be linked to dramatic increases in harmful alcohol consumption in Northern European countries, and viral hepatitis epidemics in Eastern and Southern European countries. Countries with historically low levels of liver disease may experience an increase in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in the future, given the rise of obesity across the majority of European countries. Interventions exist for curbing harmful alcohol use, reducing obesity, preventing or treating viral hepatitis, and screening for liver disease at an early stage. Conclusions: Liver disease in Europe is a serious issue, with increasing cirrhosis and liver cancer. The public health and hepatology communities are uniquely placed to implement measures aimed at reducing their causes: harmful alcohol consumption, child and adult obesity prevalence and chronic infection with hepatitis viruses, which will in turn reduce the burden of liver disease. Lay summary: The European region has seen dramatic increases in liver disease mortality and morbidity in recent decades as a result of changes in the underlying risk factors: excessive alcohol consumption, obesity and viral hepatitis. However, there are highly effective ways to combat these, for example increasing the price of alcohol, making it less readily available, reducing the number of calories, sugar and fat in foods we consume, or screening people earlier to treat them more effectively. The time is now for governments, the health system and individuals to implement the changes required to substantially reduce the burden of liver disease.

In this article there, aa conditional release from the correction institutions is analysed, which was setup by the Punishment Enforcement Code of the Republic of Lithuania as an alternative to freedom deprivation punishment. Without looking into the process of historical development, to analyse the problems of conditional release from the correction institutions realisation and how to deal with them. Lithuanian legal regulations are compared to international documents, which are related with alternative to freedom deprivation punishment (Tokyo Rules (1990), European Rules on Prison Leave (1982), European Rules on social reactions to juvenile delinquency (1987), European Rules on Community Sanctions and Measures (1992), European Recommendation on Concerning Prison Overcrowding and Prison Population Inflation (1999), European Rules on Community Sanctions and Measures (2000), European Rules on Conditional release (parole) (2003)). Conditional release from the correction institutions legal regulations in foreign countries are looked over, an experience of conditional release from the correction institutions implementation in Lithuania and abroad and, most importantly, landmarks of conditional release from the correction institutions institution improvement had been given. The article is based on the national documents and the documents of the United Nations and the Council of Europe, legal regulations and practice of conditional release from the correction institutions in foreign countries. ; Šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjamas Lietuvos Respublikos bausmių vykdymo kodekse įteisintas institutas – lygtinis paleidimas iš pataisos įstaigų, kaip alternatyva laisvės atėmimui. Straipsnyje, nesigilinant į šio instituto formavimosi raidą, siekiama apžvelgti lygtinio paleidimo iš pataisos įstaigų turinį, išanalizuoti lygtinio paleidimo iš pataisos įstaigų instituto įgyvendinimo problemas ir pasiūlyti priemones joms pašalinti, palyginti, ar Lietuvos teisinis lygtinio paleidimo reguliavimas atitinka pagrindinių tarptautinių dokumentų, susijusių su alternatyvomis laisvės atėmimo bausmei, nuostatas, taip pat palyginti nacionalinę bei užsienio valstybių patirtį, įgyvendinant lygtinio paleidimo iš pataisos įstaigų institutą. Palyginti tai su Jungtinių Tautų Organizacijos (toliau – JTO) standartinėmis minimaliomis su laisvės atėmimu nesusijusių priemonių taisyklėmis (Tokijo taisyklėmis), Europos Tarybos Ministrų komiteto rekomendacija Nr. R (82) 16 "Dėl paleidimo iš kalėjimo", Europos Tarybos Ministrų komiteto rekomendacija Nr. (87) 20 "Dėl socialinės reakcijos į nepilnamečių nusikalstamumą", Europos Tarybos Ministrų komiteto rekomendacija Nr. R (92) 16 "Dėl Europos bendruomenės sankcijų ir priemonių taisyklių", Europos Tarybos Ministrų komiteto rekomendacija Nr. R (99) 22 "Dėl kalėjimų perpildymo ir kalėjimų populiacijos padidėjimo", Europos Tarybos Ministrų komiteto rekomendacija Rec (2000) 22 "Dėl Europos bendruomeninių sankcijų ir priemonių taisyklių taikymo tobulinimo", Europos Tarybos Ministrų komiteto rekomendacija Rec (2003) 22 valstybėms narėms "Dėl lygtinio paleidimo (parolio)". Straipsnyje pateikiamos gairės dėl lygtinio paleidimo iš pataisos įstaigų instituto teisinio reguliavimo ir nuteistųjų resocializacijos tobulinimo.