Suchergebnisse

An account of the 19th-century criminal justice system as a whole, from the crimes committed and the classification of offences to the different courts and their procedure. The author describes the stages of criminal prosecution - committal, indictment, trial, verdict and punishment - and the judges, lawyers and juries, highlighting the significant changes in the rules of evidence during the century. He looks at reform of the old system and assesses how far it was brought about by lawyers themselves and how far by external forces. Finally, he considers the fairness of the system, both as seen

By all accounts, the population of enslaved Africans in Egypt increased in the 19th century compared to earlier times. An estimated 5,000 African slaves were imported annually during the 1840s and 1850s, and as few as 1,000 in 1860. However, during the cotton boom (1861–64), some 25,000 to 30,000 slaves were brought to Egypt each year to satisfy the demand for labor generated by the rapid expansion of cotton cultivation.

This study aims to explain trading activities at the Air Bangis harbor during the Dutch Colonial Government. Since the early 19th century, the Dutch Colonial Government had been more ambitious than before to utilize as much forest and agricultural products as possible in the hinterland of the West Coast of Sumatra. This intention was also supported by the improvement of the functions of harbor cities along the West Coast of Sumatra, including Air Bangis. The improvement per se had allowed a small-scale trade to be upgraded to export-oriented free harbors. The high level of trading activity in the Air Bangis harbor was made possible by its hinterland which is rich in export commodities. Among the types of the export commodities were gold, camphor, myrrh, rattan, dammar, coffee and pepper. The Air Bangis harbor had a role in lifting the spirits of the foreign nations, such as Aceh, VOC, English, and the Dutch Colonial Government, to build their influences in the harbor. The competition often caused friction which resulted in a conflict and power overtaking. The winners would take over the power from the losers, established their hegemony and monopolized the trade in the area of Air Bangis. The prosperity of the maritime activities in Air Bangis reached its peak in the first quarter of the 19th century, but it did not last long. In the last quarter of the 19th century, maritime activities in Air Bangis harbor started to decline. Nevertheless, sea voyage and trading activities in Air Bangis harbor had given a specific color to the maritime world in the West Sumatera Coast.

The inadequate care and treatment of the poor and sick reflected the lack of affordable private health insurance or a government sponsored universal social security system in 19th century Victoria. The seriously ill poor, and especially the small group of Chinese lepers, relied on the charity of local Christian philanthropists in Ballarat and Melbourne mostly organised by the Rev. William Young, a Presbyterian missionary in Ballarat. The delivery of assistance was managed by Sergeant Larner, a kindly disposed member of the Victoria Police.

Developments in infant mortality in Germany have previously only been documented in a fragmentary fashion for the 19th century as a whole, and only on a small scale for the period prior to 1871. For the first time, this paper lays a solid statistical foundation by reprocessing the figures assembled by the German states of that time. The reconstructed national statistical series (from 1826 onwards) reveals a comparatively high infant mortality, with minor deviations until the turn of the 20th century. The impact of urbanisation and industrialisation is not denied, but an evaluation of the different regional patterns and trends leads to a new weighting. The living and working conditions in the countryside were thus highly determining. The relationship between fertility and infant mortality is assessed differently for the era of the sustained reduction in fertility than for the preceding period. All in all, the prevalent customs and attitudes are regarded as being vital to infants' survival chances. We therefore need to look at attitudes among the educated public and the authorities. Efforts on the part of these groups to bring about change were particularly observed in the South West, where an awareness of the dramatic problem arose comparatively early. Further historic research at the regional level will be needed in order to achieve a final evaluation of these processes.

AbstractLate 19th‐century feminist utopian fiction provides empowering examples of societies governed by women. However, these imaginary societies only exist through radical changes to women's reproductive roles. At the same time, these societies also anticipate feminist interest in eugenics through proposals to regulate marriage, eliminate unhealthy members of society, and adopt measures for the moral improvement of the human race. Elizabeth Corbett's New Amazonia (1889) argues that a state governed only by women would achieve high moral standards, while eugenics and strict scientific regulation would guarantee improvements in health and longevity. Mary E. Bradley Lane's Mizora (1880–1881) proposes an entirely separatist world where the elimination of men, following the development of an asexual process of reproduction, would lead to a scientifically perfect society. Alice Ilgenfritz Jones and Ella Merchant's Unveiling a Parallel (1893), on the other hand, questions the idea of the intrinsic immorality of men, showing a utopia wherein women behave as badly as men given the same societal freedom. Instead, eugenic selection has supported evolution to a higher state of morality in which children are no longer conceived through sexual acts.

Japan is located in the Western North Pacific basin, the most active tropical cyclone region in the world. For the most recent normal period (1981-2010), an annual average of 25.6 typhoons formed in the basin with 5.4 of those storms coming within 300 km of the four main islands of Japan. Throughout the history of Japan, typhoons have been a major hazard bringing strong winds, high waves, and heavy rainfall with flooding and landslides to the country nearly every year. With or without potential changes in typhoon frequencies and intensities caused by anthropogenic climate change, typhoons are a significant problem for Japan. Most studies of typhoons in the Western North Pacific depend on modern data dating back only to 1951 with the more accurate satellite observations beginning in 1965. As a result, our understanding of typhoon behavior over the long term and under differing global climatic conditions remains incomplete. However, records and data do exist for earlier periods and can be used to reconstruct typhoon histories. Such records can used for periods that have no instrumental data and to add detail to periods with limited data. In our research, we use data from historical documents to reconstruct a list of typhoons affecting Japan in the 19th century and to describe and map these typhoons. We use data from: 1) Japanese historical documents including official and private diaries that have been entered into a Historical Weather Database; 2) Japanese government and academic compilations; 3) weather observations and compilations from outside Japan; 4) English language newspapers published in Japan; 5) Japan Imperial Meteorological Observatory Maps and Records. Combining data from these multiple sources makes it possible to reconstruct a meaningful record of typhoons of the past. This paper will review the data and methods we used, discuss some results to date, and preview potential uses for this research.