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Starting with J. Galtung's structural theory of aggression, stress is put on the ecological background of conflicts, esp conversion of energy through plants & animals. The role of the horse is studied extensively & exemplified by pastoral nomads, Plains Indians, etc. Group conflicts seem to be concomitant to the introduction of new mechanisms of conversion of energy. One of the most striking characteristics of industr'ism is precisely the constant & strongly accelerating stream of new methods of converting energy. The 'white race' has been considered beyond comparison the most warlike of all races, & there is much evidence to suggest that its warlike traditions lead back even to the earliest Indo-European migrations in Late Neolithic time & the Bronze Age. As the acquisition of new instruments of conversion of energy seems to promote belligerence-whereas again war means an enormous stimulus to technological development-the out-feedback-input model probably should be applicable to the study of war. Since war is a structural phenomenon apparently endemic in Western industr'ized countries, their structures, & accordingly their values, have to be changed in r to inter-state structures in the direction of soc & econ'al equality. This would mean values which make for cooperation rather than rivalry; creative, constructive activity instead of aggression. IPSA.

Starting with Johan Galtung's 'Structural theory of aggression', the article empha sizes the ecological background of conflicts, particularly conversion of energy through plants and animals. The role of the horse is dealt with more extensively and exemplified by pastoral nomads, Plains Indians, etc. Group conflicts seem to be concomitant to the introduction of new mechanisms of conversion of energy. One of the most striking characteristics of industrialism is precisely the constant and strongly accelerating stream of new methods of converting energy.'The white race' has been considered beyond comparison the most warlike of all 'races', and there is much evidence to suggest that its warlike traditions lead back even to the earliest Indo-European migrations in Late Neolithic time and the Bronze Age.As the acquisition of new instruments of conversion of energy seems to promote belligerence - whereas again war means an enormous stimulus to technological development - the 'output — feedback - input' model probably should be applicable to the study of war.Since war is a structural phenomenon apparently endemic in Western industrialized countries, their structures, and accordingly their values, have to be changed in correla tion to inter-state structures in the direction of social and economical equality. This would mean values which make for cooperation rather than rivalry; creative, constructive activity instead of aggression.

An attempt to draw a scale of man's impact on the environment, by applying to him the ecological laws already derived from the study of animals & plants, & by listing the processes of man's management of his planet. 5 major phases are recognized: (a) primeval/submission, (b) pastoral/domestication, (c) settlemen/cultivation, (d) industr/substitution, & (e) climatic & cosmic/cosmic outburst. Re phase (a), the 1st 3 steps show little evidence of anything but acceptance of environment by man: (1) virgin land, (2) gathering, & (3) hunting & fishing. In phase (b) in herding & agriculture a great advance is made in man's dominion over nature: control of migration, introduction, acclimatization, naturalization, & eventually domestication. In step (4), herding, the mustering of homogeneous (usually monospecific) pop's of animals implies many developing features: territorial control, protection, selection, exploitation, & migration. Phase (c) contains step (5) agri, which rests upon a widely improved knowledge, & it introduces a greater perturbation & transformation of the environment: agri'al taxonomy, the ecology of cultivation, & the channeling of resources. Re phase (d), human economy undergoes one of its major shifts when the ecosystem inhabited by a given group no longer produces any appreciable amount of staple food materials & is therefore geared to processing & not to harvest. It includes step (6) industry (water & power, minerals, organic mining, vegetable materials, animal materials), & step (7) Ur'ization, which is fundamental to the sci & art of town planning. Parallel to the destruction of natural ecosystems, industr'ization & Ur'ization have brought about large-scale perturbations that go under the general heading of pollution. Re phase (e), the conquest of the atmosphere, & more recently of extra-terrestrial space, has lifted man's capacity to the geological level. This phase includes step (8) climatic control, & (9) exobiological escape. Finally, the interaction of culture & of landscape management is discussed. The processes of man's manag are exploitation, substitution, engineering, & designing. These 4 main processes are to be seen at work successively, as they represent an increasing consciousness of environment & a corresponding developing power to model it & make it fit the ideal image. Such an image itself is far from static & the satisfaction of basic requirements of the ethnic group results in the emergence of new & more complex desires. E. Weiman.

International audience This paper outlines in some detail the population dynamics of a large, free-ranging herd of Bison in Wood Buffalo National Park in northern Canada. That herd increased from a remnant of about 500 in the 1890's to an estimated 1,500 in 1922. In the late 1920's 6,600 plains Bison were added to the original population of wood Bison. Since 1930 the increase has been much slower, probably because of increased mortality caused by tuberculosis and reduced fertility caused by brucellosis. Both diseases were probably introduced with the plains Bison. In contrast, the rate of increase of three small, fenced herds of plains Bison is about 25 percent per year. Management of the fenced herds consists mainly of periodic reduction in numbers to keep the population within the carrying capacity of the range. Management of the wild, northern Bison entails mainly an attempt to reduce the incidence of tuberculosis in certain selected portions of the herd. A minor, but still significant management goal is to restore the Bison to the list of game animals by permitting the hunting of trophy bulls in areas outside the Park boundary. The bulk of the herd is being left in as nearly a natural state as possible in order to reap the maximum aesthetic benefits. At present there are about 20,000 Bison under federal government protection in the United States and Canada plus others under State, Provincial or private control. The herds are widely distributed in the western part of the continent and the future of the species seems assured.

This paper outlines in some detail the population dynamics of a large, free-ranging herd of Bison in Wood Buffalo National Park in northern Canada. That herd increased from a remnant of about 500 in the 1890's to an estimated 1,500 in 1922. In the late 1920's 6,600 plains Bison were added to the original population of wood Bison. Since 1930 the increase has been much slower, probably because of increased mortality caused by tuberculosis and reduced fertility caused by brucellosis. Both diseases were probably introduced with the plains Bison. In contrast, the rate of increase of three small, fenced herds of plains Bison is about 25 percent per year. Management of the fenced herds consists mainly of periodic reduction in numbers to keep the population within the carrying capacity of the range. Management of the wild, northern Bison entails mainly an attempt to reduce the incidence of tuberculosis in certain selected portions of the herd. A minor, but still significant management goal is to restore the Bison to the list of game animals by permitting the hunting of trophy bulls in areas outside the Park boundary. The bulk of the herd is being left in as nearly a natural state as possible in order to reap the maximum aesthetic benefits. At present there are about 20,000 Bison under federal government protection in the United States and Canada plus others under State, Provincial or private control. The herds are widely distributed in the western part of the continent and the future of the species seems assured.

Bacteriological studies in 1968 and 1969 corroborated earlier findings that a municipal watershed which had been closed to public entry since 1917 yielded water with four to six times the coliform count found in an adjacent mountain watershed open to recreational activities. Similarly, chemical investigations showed higher concentrations of most ions in water from the closed area. Physiological differentiation of coliform and enterococcal bacteria revealed similar types of organisms in both animal droppings and stream water, with fecal coliforms accounting for as much as 70% of the coliform counts observed in the closed area in 1969. Opening of the closed drainage for limited recreation and expanded logging operations in the spring of 1970 coincided with an unexpected decrease in bacterial contamination of that stream. It is postulated that these human activities drove from the watershed a large wild animal population which had contributed substantially to the previous bacterial pollution. It would seem that the practice of closing high-mountain watersheds to public entry is questionable if governmental standards for water quality are to be met, and it also seems that the standards themselves should be reexamined.

There seems to be, and I'm sure it is true with all of you, a feeling that the time has come when we must expand our area of concern to include wild birds and animals, as well as the domestic animals and pets which are part of our interest today. On the basis of this assumption, I'd like to cover the following points in my discussion. First, all those sound and logical reasons to include a broad interest in wildlife in the program of the humane society. Second, some specific areas and problems that might engage our interest and action. Third, how can the humane society-an organization which is created primarily for action at the local level-and its members function in the field of wildlife conservation?

Conservation and the humane movement are Siamese twins. They are inseparable. I beg you to keep this in mind, to think about this, because there is an explosion coming in the conservation movement. Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin, a great conservationist and humanitarian, is leading the fight now for a teach-in that is going to take place in colleges across this country early next year--early in 1970. Students and teachers are going to sit and talk about nothing but ecology and a crash program of awareness. We are heading for national and international catastrophe and it will soon be on us. These forces are bringing to the foreground the absolute necessity for conservation. The humanitarian movement can gain nothing but strength from the association. Do not be prejudiced against it.

Human remains firmly associated with Mousterian artifacts and exhibiting characteristics transitional between those of Neanderthal and fully modern man are known from two Levantine sites. A survey of the archeological evidence suggests that three climatic zones were differentially exploited by Neanderthal man and that some of the sites document a shift in subsistence away from a generalized hunting pattern to the specialized hunting of large, migratory herd animals. The hypothesis is offered that the formal changes documented for the Upper Paleolithic occurred in response to this basic shift in human ecology.