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The author begins by presenting his theory as such on the method by which the ius commune should come about. Then, he discusses the benefits of this method and finally some of its disadvantages. Convergence of legal systems is not a political nor a scholarly venture. It is a practical thing. If we want to have a truly unified private law in Europe and are aware of the limitations unification inherently has, auhtor thinks the best method would be to have legal rules compete. The ius commune Europaeum would emerge where it is needed the most in legal practice itself.

Published Article ; This research is about marketing research activity, an important business imperative when confronted with intense competition, among hair salon owners (mainly Black and previously disadvantaged people) in South Africa. With hair salons becoming unarguably the most affordable means through which the previously advantaged people of South Africa are able to enter mainstream economic activity, their proper management for to ensure survival and profitability has become a key concern for government and policy makers. Easy entry due to low setup cost and no legal need for formalisation, have contributed to proliferation of the hair salon business leading to intense competition for customers and this has unfortunate consequences for hair salons' survival and economic performance. From a strategic management perspective, it is only logical for hair salons to conduct marketing research to obtain accurate information on product prices and customer preferences in order to perform better. But the question is whether hair salons ever consider marketing research relevant to them given resource constraints of such micro businesses. The purpose of this paper is to assess the attitude of hair salons towards marketing research. The findings are that marketing research is not much practiced among the hair salons studied. Implications are discussed.

AbstractObjectiveIn this paper, we seek to update and expand the understanding of whether the patterns of competition in two‐round elections in the United States exist in other countries.MethodsUsing insights from the well‐developed literature on two‐round elections in the U.S. South, we analyze an original data set covering two‐round presidential systems in Latin America. We focus on the likelihood that elections will go to a second round, and, once a second round happens, the role that first‐round electoral strength and incumbency status play in determining the ultimate outcome.ResultsUnlike previous work, our statistical model accounts for unobservable factors that simultaneously affect the likelihood of a second round occurring and of the first‐round leader winning that round.ConclusionsPatterns of competition across U.S. and Latin American two‐round elections are similar, though incumbency status may be a bigger asset in the latter than in the former.

Scholars of party politics have recently examined the influence of niche parties on the dynamics of party competition. In particular, drawing on the 'Position, Salience and Ownership' (PSO) model, it has been argued that when a new niche actor enters the political arena, it seeks to introduce a new policy dimension into political debate and simultaneously affects the competitive strategies of mainstream actors. By using manifesto data, this article analyses the impact of the Lega Nord on political discourse in Italy relating to the territorial dimension. Its findings challenge the assumptions of the PSO theory on niche-mainstream dynamics of competition. The article argues that, firstly, niche parties can mobilise on a policy dimension that has long been present on the political agenda; secondly, that niche party influence on mainstream party strategies is limited, at least when compared with the influence of other systemic variables. Nevertheless, the role of niche parties can be re-evaluated by considering a further strategic tool that parties can use to define their strategies, namely framing. In particular, the article argues that the Lega Nord has introduced a new language into political debate on the territorial dimension, which has required rival parties to react by reframing and redefining these issues differently from the past. Using an original coding scheme for the measurement of party attitudes in party manifestos, the article provides empirical grounds for arguing that a consideration of rhetoric should be included in any analysis of the competitive strategies of political parties in a two-dimensional space.

The article analyses the influence of globalization and concentration processes on the development of the stock market of Ukraine, the accent is made on the strengthening of competition among the participants of exchange trade in modern conditions of the market economy. Based on the analyses of different points of view of economists and lawyers, the conclusion is made that it is necessary to consider the improvement of legal support of the process of formation and development of competitive relations in the field of exchange trade as a priority. The author studies the peculiarities of the formation of the legal basis for the protection of economic competition in the field of exchange trade, gives examples and provides a meaningful characteristics of such types of competition law offenses as abuse of monopoly position and anticompetitive concerted actions of economic entities in stock trading. The article analyses the practical experiences of anti-monopoly agencies concerning the detection and preventing of competitive law offenses in the field of exchange trade by monitoring the stock market, applying appropriate sanctions to offenders, as well as providing recommendations to eliminate the consequences of the offense. It is proposed to improve the mechanism of legal regulation of competitive relations of exchangetrade participants on the basis of building a system of harmonious cooperation and coordination between antimonopoly agencies and exchanges on the implementation of principles and realization of national competition policy in Ukraine. Based on the study, the provisions on the need for legal securing in the exchange legislation of special rules on the regulation of competitive legal relations in the field of exchange trade as a key basis for the formation and development of a competitive model of the exchange market of Ukraine are substantiated. ; У статті проведено аналіз впливу процесів глобалізації та концентрації на розвиток біржового ринку України, акцентовано увагу на посилення конкуренції серед учасників біржової торгівлі в сучасних умовах ринкової економіки. На підставі аналізу різних думок, висловлених ученими-економістами та юристами, зроблено висновок про необхідність розглядати як першочергове завдання удосконалення правового забезпечення процесу формування та розвитку конкурентних відносин у сфері біржової торгівлі. Автором досліджено особливості формування правової основи захисту економічної конкуренції у сфері біржової торгівлі, наведені приклади та надана змістовна характеристика таких видів правопорушень конкурентного законодавства, як зловживання монопольним становищем та антиконкурентні узгоджені дії суб'єктів господарювання під час проведення біржових торгів. У статті проведено аналіз практики антимонопольних органів щодо виявлення та попередження порушень конкурентного законодавства у сфері біржової торгівлі шляхом проведення моніторингу біржового ринку, застосування до правопорушників відповідних санкцій, а також надання рекомендацій щодо усунення наслідків правопорушення. Пропонується удосконалення механізму правового регулювання конкурентних відносин учасників біржової торгівлі на основі побудування системи злагодженої співпраці та координації між антимонопольними органами та біржами щодо втілення принципів та реалізації положень національної конкурентної політики в Україні. На підставі дослідження обґрунтовано положення щодо необхідності правового закріплення у біржовому законодавстві спеціальних норм, присвячених регулюванню конкурентних правовідносин у сфері біржової торгівлі, як ключової засади формування та розвитку конкурентної моделі біржового ринку України.

NGOs and companies come closer to each other as a result of a double movement in which each type of structure is inspired by the other. Partnerships are being developed, further strengthening this approximation, and sometimes leading to some form of competition. By investing in the commercial sphere, NGOs create new markets, now convened by companies in search of societal legitimacy. The fundamental question is then to place the boundaries between sectors of activity and the prerogatives of NGOs and businesses. What are the challenges and consequences of such recovery of scope and target? Efficiency, legitimacy and balance of power structure this debate, and it is through the analysis of the iconic case of fair trade that we will try to answer these research questions. ; International audience NGOs and companies are getting together under the effect of a double movement whereby each structure inspires the other. Partnerships are made, reinforcing their closeness and sometimes even a certain form of competition. By investing in the trading circle, NGOs are creating new markets, also being eyed by the private companies in search of public legitimacy.The fundamental question is then to find out where the border is between the poles of activity and prerogatives of the NGOs and the companies. What are the stakes and the consequences of the overlapping of the field of action and the target? Efficiency, legitimacy and forceful relationships structure the debate and it is via the analysis of a symbolic equitable commerce case that we will try to answer these research questions. ; NGOs and companies come closer to each other as a result of a double movement in which each type of structure is inspired by the other. Partnerships are being developed, further strengthening this approximation, and sometimes leading to some form of competition. By investing in the commercial sphere, NGOs create new markets, now convened by companies in search of societal legitimacy. The fundamental question is then to place the boundaries ...

This work envisages effects of fiscal competition in terms both tax rate and public spending on the spatial distribution of economic activities. We explain existence of tax differential between European countries by agglomeration effects which are absent of the traditional literature on the fiscal competition. The concentration of economic activities is studied with the construction of an economic geography model integrating the effects of public spending on the competition between States. The public spending are considered in level and in their composition. We apprehend fiscal competition between governments which use public expenditure to strengthen the attractiveness of their locality. The model determines, in an analytical way, the optimal share of the public expenditure having to be devoted to the firms to maximize the agglomeration rent. Finally simulations are led to replace the results obtained in an European point of view. The model shows a greater sensitivity of mobile capital to variations of agglomeration rent, and thus to the public expenditure, than those related to movements of tax rate. ¶By allocating its tax revenues to public investments and infrastructures, the governments support agglomeration of economic activities and can, consequently, preserve differentiated tax rates. The conclusion establishes that it is possible to maintain industrial activities in a region which presents at the same time a high level of taxation and a public spending policy adapted to mobile factors. This situation exists as long as the tax differential is compensated with a positive agglomeration rent. To maximize this rent, the governments look for the optimal distribution between public spending to all the residents and public spending more specifically intended for the mobile factors. ; L'ambition de la thèse est d'envisager les effets de la concurrence fiscale à la fois en termes de taux de taxe et en termes de dépenses publiques sur la répartition spatiale des activités économiques. La thèse explique l'existence ...

Das Buch wertet die Untersuchung des Arzneimittelsektors der Europäischen Kommission aus. Im Mittelpunkt dieser Untersuchung stehen die Praktiken der Pharmaunternehmen, den Wettbewerb durch Generika und die Entwicklung konkurrierender Originalpräparate zu verhindern bzw. zu erschweren. Die interdisziplinäre Arbeit gibt den Entscheidungsträgern der Pharmaindustrie wertvolle Hinweise welche Auswirkungen die Untersuchung hat.

In an increasingly technologically-led century the striking pattern emerging in firms' innovative activities is their competition for a technological leadership position in situations best described as races. A 'race' is an interactive pattern characterized by firms constantly trying to get ahead of their rivals, or trying not to fall too far behind. In high technology industries, where customers are willing to pay a premium for advanced technology, leadership translates into increasing returns in the market through positive network externalities. Innovation, Technology an

This paper provides a comprehensive assessment of banking competition on the market for loans in the Russian banking system connecting it to various phases of the business cycle in Russia. Our focus is on price competition, which is measured through the Lerner index of market power. Using Lerner index, we investigate, first, the levels of interest rate markups in the market for loans; second, the influence of these markups on credit activity of banks as well as their relation with the size of banks. Next, we compare our measured Lerner index with three additional competition indicators, i.e. H- statistics of Panzar and Rosse (mix of price and quantity competition), Boone indicator (quantity and quality competition) and Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (quantity competition). For our comparisons, we choose the time period of 2005 Q1 to2012 Q4, i.e. starting from one boom on the market for loans and ending with another boom so that between them there is one episode of macroeconomic and systemic banking crisis that could substantially change the strength of competition. Our estimations show that the impact of competition on credit activity of banks is nonlinear - when price competition is too strict or too weak the credit activity of banks becomes slower. Before the crisis of 2008-2009 increases of both price and quantity competition took place; however, during the crisis these competition improvements were offset by uneven access of banks to refinancing resources and the deterioration of borrowers' creditworthiness that entailed the rise of risk premium in interest rates on loans. After the crisis, price competition turned back to upward trend again stimulated by the growing boom on the market for retail loans, whereas quantity competition remained rather constrained.

Küreselleşme faktörü; ekonomik, sosyal ve siyasi alanlarda, dünya genelindeki bütün ülkelerde bir taraftan fırsatların, diğer taraftan ise risklerin meydana gelmesine neden olmuştur. Bu süreç içerisinde, ticaretin küreselleşmesi ve ülkeler arasındaki ekonomik entegrasyon faaliyetlerinin artması, ülkelerin birbirlerinden bağımsız bir şekilde hareket edebilme güçlerini kısıtlamıştır. Özellikle ekonomi alanında meydana gelen değişim ve dönüşümler, devletlerin gerek mali ve gerekse siyasi yapıları üzerinde de önemli etkilere neden olmuştur. Küreselleşme sürecinde kamu maliyesi alanında görülen etkilerin en başında, vergileme konusu gelmektedir. Küreselleşme ile gelişen ülkelerin ekonomik, sosyal ve siyasi alanlarda birbirleri ile olan karşılıklı etkileşimleri, vergileme alanında daha belirgin olarak görülmektedir. Dünyada liberal ekonomi politikalarının etkili olması ile birlikte, ulus devlet anlayışı zayıflamış, ülke sınırları artık anlamını yitirmiş ve sermayenin önündeki engellerde ortadan kalkmaya başlamıştır. Bu doğrultuda, gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerde doğrudan yabancı sermaye yatırımları(DYSY), ekonomik büyüme ve kalkınmanın sağlanmasında, büyük önem arz eder hale gelmiştir. Ülkeler; küresel sermayeden daha fazla pay alabilmek ve yabancı yatırım düzeylerini artırabilmek için, düşük oranlı vergileme politikaları izlemeye başlamışlardır. Bu amaçla izlenen vergi politikaları, vergi rekabeti kavramının oluşmasına neden olmuştur. Küreselleşme ile birlikte hızla artan ve etkili olmaya başlayan vergi rekabetinin etkili olduğu alanların başında ise, DYSY'ler gelmektedir. Bu çalışmada, ilk olarak vergi rekabetinin ülke ekonomileri üzerindeki etkilerinin incelenmesi amaçlanmış ve daha sonrasında ise, küreselleşmenin temel göstergesi olan vergi rekabetinin DYSY'ler üzerindeki etkilerinin, Türkiye ve AB ülkeleri açısından, panel veri analizi yöntemi ile belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. ; On one hand, globalization factor has brought opportunities in economic, social and political fields for all the countries across the globe; and on the other, it has caused several risks. Within this process; the globalization of commerce and the increase in international economic integration activities, have limited the nations' power to act independently from each other. Especially the changes and transformations taken place in the economic field have caused significant effects on both the nations' financial and political structures. The most important effect seen in the field of public finance during globalization process is the issue of taxation. Developed by globalization, nations' mutual interactions in economic, social and political fields can be seen more clearly in the field of taxation. Due to the effectiveness of liberal economy policies in the world; the perception of nation-state has been weakened, national boundaries has lost their significance and the obstacles against capital, has started to be removed. In this direction, foreign direct investments (FDI) have become of vital importance for developed and developing countries that seek for achieving economic growth and development. In order to receive more shares from the capital and to increase their foreign investment levels, nations have started to pursue low-rate taxation policies. Tax policies that are followed with this objective, have led to the creation of tax competition concept. The most important field, in which tax competition has started to be effective and has been rapidly increasing with globalization, is FDI. In this study, it was initially aimed to analyze the effects of tax competition on nations' economies, and then, it was aimed to determine effects of tax competition, which is the main indicator of globalization, on FDI by panel data analysis method in terms of Turkey and EU nations.

Die Autorin legt eine "institutionenökonomische Theorie der Qualifikationspolitik von Unternehmen" vor. Dazu zieht sie Ergebnisse der "Quinter Studie zur Praxis der Personalpolitik in Europa" (QUIPPE) heran, die Erhebungen in 52 Industriebetrieben in Großbritannien, der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Frankreich und Luxemburg umfaßte. Die Darstellung konzentriert sich auf Bedingungen und Ergebnisse der Qualifikationsdeckung von Unternehmen in Großbritannien und Deutschland. Dazu wird das theoretische Instrumentarium der Institutionenökonomie herangezogen. die Einleitung geht auf betriebliche Qualifizierungsstrategien im internationalen und Inter-Firmen-Vergleich ein. Anschließend wird die betriebliche Logik der Vorhaltung qualifizierter Arbeitskräfte analysiert; dazu wird ein entsprechendes Modell entwickelt und empirisch angewandt. Die Rahmenbedingungen betrieblicher Erstausbildung und die betrieblichen Kosten der Vorhaltung qualifizierter Arbeitskräfte werden im nächsten Kapitel für Großbritannien und Deutschland untersucht. Anschließend werden empirische Befunde aus der Quinter Studie zur Praxis der Personalpolitik in Europa zum Länder- und Unternehmensvergleich differenzierter betrieblicher Qualifizierungsstrategien herangezogen, wobei eine Charakterisierung und Einteilung der betrieblichen Produktionsstrategien und Absatzmarktbedingungen erfolgt (Industrieunternehmen, Banken) und auch der Einfluß von Berufsausbildungsinstitutionen einbezogen wird. Abschließend wird versucht, die Befunde zu betrieblichen Qualifizierungsstrategien im internationalen und interindustriellen Vergleich unternehmenstheoretisch zu erklären. (IAB2)