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Introduction to B2G data sharing Data sharing is a key enabler of growth, employment, and competitiveness for Europe and the Digital Single Market envisaged by the European Union. The non-rivalrous nature of data, combined with technological innovations such as the availability of big data analysis and artificial intelligence applications, enable maximising the value of data. Re-using data can save costs, time and lives. The benefits of data re-use are not reserved to the private sector. In fact, to become more cost-efficient and provide effective services for citizens, public sector bodies can benefit greatly from data sharing and need to exploit the potential of new data sources. This data can be sourced from the private sector, academia, NGOs or the public sector itself. Much of the data generated in the public sector is already made open for re-use, encouraged by the Directive on Public Sector Information (PSI). However, there is also data that cannot be made open because of sensitivity or confidentiality. This data can only be shared under special conditions and to a restricted and controlled set of users in order to leverage their value. An example of a value is insight into the behavioural patterns of citizens and businesses across social, political, historical or environmental factors. This insight can help public sector organisations understand, evaluate, predict and prepare for certain situations and scenarios, for example: Understanding commuting patterns to support urban planning, road safety, and traffic management, as well as environmental protection. Additional insight into a population's health conditions, diagnosis, and medical treatments can improve public health care and lead to a more effective response to epidemics. Market monitoring and payment patterns can help detect fraud and increase consumer protection. In addition, there are legal, technical and organisational factors that must be considered when setting up a framework for data sharing between businesses and public organisations. In ...

Data is an important business resource. It forms the basis for various digital technologies such as artificial intelligence or smart services. However, access to data is unequally distributed in the market. Hence, some business ideas fail due to a lack of data sources. Although many governments have recognised the importance of open data and already make administrative data available to the public on a large scale, many companies are still reluctant to share their data among other firms and competitors. As a result, the economic potential of data is far from being fully exploited. Against this background, we analyse current developments in the area of open data. We compare the characteristics of open governmental and open company data in order to define the necessary framework conditions for data sharing. Subsequently, we examine the status quo of data sharing among firms. We use a qualitative analysis of survey data of European companies to derive the sufficient conditions to strengthen data sharing. Our analysis shows that government data is a public good, while company data can be seen as a club or private good. Latter frequently build the core for companies' business models and hence are less suitable for data sharing. Finally, we find that promoting legal certainty and the economic impact present important policy steps for fostering data sharing.

The current emphasis on broad sharing of human genomic data generated in research in order to maximize utility and public benefit is a significant legacy of the Human Genome Project. Concerns about privacy and discrimination have led to policy responses that restrict access to genomic data as the means for protecting research participants. Our research and experience show, however, that a considerable number of research participants agree to open access sharing of their genomic data when given the choice. General policies that limit access to all genomic data fail to respect the autonomy of these participants and, at the same time, unnecessarily limit the utility of the data. We advocate instead a more balanced approach that allows for individual choice and encourages informed decision making, while protecting against the misuse of genomic data through enhanced legislation.

Context and aims Researchers increasingly need to share their data. This requires both adherence to Australia's robust privacy legislation and preparation of comprehensive data management plans. This paper outlines the data-sharing issues managed by IMPACT, a 6-site Canadian-Australian collaborative research program designed to improve access to primary health care for vulnerable individuals. Each site used a common protocol to evaluate its own intervention, with the aim of pooling data across the sites. Ethics applications were submitted in each site.MethodsConsultations were conducted with key informants within one Australian university (UNSW Sydney) and external informants to develop a data sharing plan. The authors reflect upon the process and have identified lessons for others wanting to share data.Findings Data sharing for a multi-site multi-country study was complex. University policies and infrastructure have been changing, not all sharing tools were available and support personnel were still learning how to implement policies related to data sharing. Furthermore, site-specific ethics applications did not specify that the data was part of a larger study. Consequently, the other 5 sites were deemed as external.We needed multiple consultations with ethics, IT, and data governance units to understand data classification (patient data is inherently sensitive), who needed access, and how access could be enabled. Bringing these support units together assisted a common understanding – this had not been previous practice. Innovative contribution to policy, practice and/or researchEarly consultations with university ethics and data governance units is recommended for planning data sharing – particularly for patient data and complex projects.

This article addresses the role of pharmacoepidemiology in patient safety and the crucial role of data sharing in ensuring that such activities occur. Against the backdrop of proposed reforms of European data protection legislation, it considers whether the current legislative landscape adequately facilitates this essential data sharing. It is argued that rather than maximising and promoting the benefits of such activities by facilitating data sharing, current and proposed legislative landscapes hamper these vital activities. The article posits that current and proposed data protection approaches to pharmacoepidemiology — and more broadly, re-uses of data — should be reoriented towards enabling these important safety enhancing activities. Two potential solutions are offered: 1) a dedicated working party on data reuse for health research and 2) the introduction of new, dedicated legislation.

A model of cloud services is emerging whereby a few trusted providers manage the underlying hardware and communications whereas many companies build on this infrastructure to offer higher level, cloud-hosted PaaS services and/or SaaS applications. From the start, strong isolation between cloud tenants was seen to be of paramount importance, provided first by virtual machines (VM) and later by containers, which share the operating system (OS) kernel. Increasingly it is the case that applications also require facilities to effect isolation and protection of data managed by those applications. They also require flexible data sharing with other applications, often across the traditional cloud-isolation boundaries; for example, when government, consisting of different departments, provides services to its citizens through a common platform. These concerns relate to the management of data. Traditional access control is application and principal/role specific, applied at policy enforcement points, after which there is no subsequent control over where data flows;a crucial issue once data has left its owner's control by cloud-hosted applications andwithin cloud-services. Information Flow Control (IFC), in addition, offers system-wide, end-To-end, flow control based on the properties of the data. We discuss the potential of cloud-deployed IFC for enforcing owners' data flow policy with regard to protection and sharing, aswell as safeguarding against malicious or buggy software. In addition, the audit log associated with IFC provides transparency and offers system-wide visibility over data flows. This helps those responsible to meet their data management obligations, providing evidence of compliance, and aids in the identification ofpolicy errors and misconfigurations. We present our IFC model and describe and evaluate our IFC architecture and implementation (CamFlow). This comprises an OS level implementation of IFC with support for application management, together with an IFC-enabled middleware.

The report on the Value of Open Data Sharing was first prepared for the GEO-XII Plenary by the GEO Participating Organization CODATA (the ICSU Committee on Data for Science and Technology). Through showcasing diverse benefits of open Earth observations data, the report is designed to facilitate the process of transitioning from restricted data policies to more open policies for government data. At the GEO-XII Plenary the report received positive feedback from GEO Member countries and Participating Organizations, who also expressed willingness to contribute supplementary case studies. Therefore, it was decided to maintain this report as a living document, with this version for the record as version 1. The GEO community will provide periodic updates, examples and case studies.

Independent data stewardship remains a core component of good data governance practice. Yet, there is a need for more robust independent data stewardship models that are able to oversee data-driven, multi-party data sharing, usage and re-usage, which can better incorporate citizen representation, especially in relation to personal data. We propose that data foundations – inspired by Channel Islands' foundations laws – provide a workable model for good data governance not only in the Channel Islands but also elsewhere. A key advantage of this model – in addition to leveraging existing legislation and building on established precedent – is the statutory role of the guardian that is a unique requirement in the Channel Islands, and when interpreted in a data governance model provides the independent data steward. The principal purpose for this paper therefore is to demonstrate why data foundations are well suited to the needs of data sharing initiatives. We further examine how data foundations could be established in practice – and provide key design principles that should be used to guide the design and development of any data foundation.

Dementia currently affects almost 8 million people in Europe and is a leading cause of disability and dependency in old age. With the share of people aged 65 and over projected to rise to 29% of the European population by 2070, dementia is an increasingly critical public health issue. As such, research into the causes, diagnosis, prevention and care of dementia is of enormous importance – particularly as there are no disease-modifying treatments currently available. In December 2013, at the G8 Dementia Summit, ministers agreed to share information and data from dementia research studies, to get the best return on investment in research. While numerous initiatives have been launched to make this promise a reality, data from many dementia research studies still remains siloed, stored behind the firewalls of research institutions, drug companies and medical centers. Since 2013, the European policy landscape has evolved substantially; the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme for Research and Innovation, initiated in 2014, is drawing to a close, and digital technologies and personalised medicine are now firmly on the EU agenda. The legal landscape has also been reshaped; for clinical research data to travel between institutions and across borders, researchers must now show compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). In this report, we outline the policy and legal landscapes that dementia researchers have had to navigate since the launch of Horizon 2020, identifying the key barriers and enablers for data sharing. We have also mapped the portfolio of projects on dementia funded by Horizon 2020, assessing the scale of EU investment in dementia research and the proportion of projects that involve the use of clinical research data. Finally, we reviewed recent surveys of researchers, research participants and patients, evaluating their perceptions, motivations and concerns regarding data sharing.

The IDRC-funded project 'Empowering Indigenous Peoples and Knowledge Systems Related to Climate Change and Intellectual Property Rights' is part of the Open and Collaborative Science in Development Network (OCSDNet). The project "examiners processes of open and collaborative science related to indigenous peoples' knowledge, climate change and intellectual property rights". Natural Justice, the lead organisation has a strong ethical stance on the agency and control over knowledge being vested with the contributing project participants, communities of the Nama and Griqua peoples of the Western Cape of South Africa. The project focuses on questions of how climate change is affecting these communities, how do they produce and maintain knowledge relating to climate change, how that knowledge is characterised and shared (or not) with wider publics, and how legal frameworks promote or hinder the agenda of these indigenous communities and their choices to communicate and collaborate with wider publics. Indigenous Knowledge is an area where ethical issues of informed consent, historical injustice, non-compatible epistemologies and political, legal, and economic issues all collide in ways that challenge western and Anglo-American assumptions about data sharing. The group seeks to strongly model and internally critique their own ethical stance in the process of their research, through for instance, using community contracts and questioning institutional informed consent systems.

The IDRC-funded project 'Empowering Indigenous Peoples and Knowledge Systems Related to Climate Change and Intellectual Property Rights' is part of the Open and Collaborative Science in Development Network (OCSDNet). The project "examiners processes of open and collaborative science related to indigenous peoples' knowledge, climate change and intellectual property rights". Natural Justice, the lead organisation has a strong ethical stance on the agency and control over knowledge being vested with the contributing project participants, communities of the Nama and Griqua peoples of the Western Cape of South Africa. The project focuses on questions of how climate change is affecting these communities, how do they produce and maintain knowledge relating to climate change, how that knowledge is characterised and shared (or not) with wider publics, and how legal frameworks promote or hinder the agenda of these indigenous communities and their choices to communicate and collaborate with wider publics. Indigenous Knowledge is an area where ethical issues of informed consent, historical injustice, non-compatible epistemologies and political, legal, and economic issues all collide in ways that challenge western and Anglo-American assumptions about data sharing. The group seeks to strongly model and internally critique their own ethical stance in the process of their research, through for instance, using community contracts and questioning institutional informed consent systems.

The current emphasis on broad sharing of human genomic data generated in research in order to maximize utility and public benefit is a significant legacy of the Human Genome Project. Concerns about privacy and discrimination have led to policy responses that restrict access to genomic data as the means for protecting research participants. Our research and experience show, however, that a considerable number of research participants agree to open access sharing of their genomic data when given the choice. General policies that limit access to all genomic data fail to respect the autonomy of these participants and, at the same time, unnecessarily limit the utility of the data. We advocate instead a more balanced approach that allows for individual choice and encourages informed decision making, while protecting against the misuse of genomic data through enhanced legislation.

Independent data stewardship remains a core component of good data governance practice. Yet, there is a need for more robust independent data stewardship models that are able to oversee data-driven, multi-party data sharing, usage and re-usage, which can better incorporate citizen representation, especially in relation to personal data. We propose that data foundations – inspired by Channel Islands' foundations laws – provide a workable model for good data governance not only in the Channel Islands but also elsewhere. A key advantage of this model – in addition to leveraging existing legislation and building on established precedent – is the statutory role of the guardian that is a unique requirement in the Channel Islands, and when interpreted in a data governance model provides the independent data steward. The principal purpose for this paper therefore is to demonstrate why data foundations are well suited to the needs of data sharing initiatives. We further examine how data foundations could be established in practice – and provide key design principles that should be used to guide the design and development of any data foundation

Presented at the National data integrity conference: data sharing: the how, why, when and when not to share held on June 2-3, 2016 at University of Colorado, Denver, Colorado. The National Data Integrity Conference is a gathering of people sharing new challenges and solutions regarding research data and integrity. This conference aims to provide attendees with both an understanding of data integrity issues and impart practical tools and skills to deal with them. Topics addressed will include data privacy, openness, policy, education and the impacts of sharing data, how to do it, when to do it, and when not to. Speakers and audience members come from diverse fields such as: Academic Research; Information Technology; Quality Assurance; Regulatory Compliance; Private Industry; Grant Funding; Government. ; Professor Scott Denning received his B.A. in Geological Sciences from the University of Maine in 1984, and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Atmospheric Science from Colorado State University in 1993 and 1994. He studied radiometric geochronology, surface water geochemistry, and mountain hydrology before becoming interested in global climate and biogeochemical dynamics. After a two-year postdoctoral appointment modeling global sources and sinks of atmospheric CO2, he spent two years as an Assistant Professor in the Donald Bren School of Environmental Science and Management at the University of California at Santa Barbara. He joined the Atmospheric Science faculty at Colorado State University in 1998, and has served as Director of Education for CMMAP since 2006. He does a lot of outreach about climate change, and takes special delight in engaging hostile audiences. ; PowerPoint presentation given on June 3, 2016.

Presented at the National data integrity conference: data sharing: the how, why, when and when not to share held on June 2-3, 2016 at University of Colorado, Denver, Colorado. The National Data Integrity Conference is a gathering of people sharing new challenges and solutions regarding research data and integrity. This conference aims to provide attendees with both an understanding of data integrity issues and impart practical tools and skills to deal with them. Topics addressed will include data privacy, openness, policy, education and the impacts of sharing data, how to do it, when to do it, and when not to. Speakers and audience members come from diverse fields such as: Academic Research; Information Technology; Quality Assurance; Regulatory Compliance; Private Industry; Grant Funding; Government. ; Professor Scott Denning received his B.A. in Geological Sciences from the University of Maine in 1984, and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Atmospheric Science from Colorado State University in 1993 and 1994. He studied radiometric geochronology, surface water geochemistry, and mountain hydrology before becoming interested in global climate and biogeochemical dynamics. After a two-year postdoctoral appointment modeling global sources and sinks of atmospheric CO2, he spent two years as an Assistant Professor in the Donald Bren School of Environmental Science and Management at the University of California at Santa Barbara. He joined the Atmospheric Science faculty at Colorado State University in 1998, and has served as Director of Education for CMMAP since 2006. He does a lot of outreach about climate change, and takes special delight in engaging hostile audiences. ; PowerPoint presentation given on June 3, 2016.