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The variable "public diplomacy message strategy" (or "public diplomacy approach") refers to public diplomacy efforts in a given country in order to investigate how and with which goal public diplomacy is strategically communicated in the given context. The variable reflects the communication style of a specific actor (a politician, government, or country). Field of application/theoretical foundation: Analyses of public diplomacy message strategies or approaches mostly build on the taxonomy of public diplomacy (Cull, 2008) or the proposed categories of public diplomacy by Fitzpatrick (2010). References/combination with other methods of data collection: Public diplomacy message strategies can, in addition to content analysis, be analyzed by conducting interviews or surveys with public diplomacy actors, which allow validating the results from content analyses. Example study: Dodd & Collins (2017) Information on Dodd & Collins (2017) Authors: Dodd & Collins Research question/research interest: Comparison between public diplomacy approaches between Central Eastern European (not explicated) and Western countries (Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States) Object of analysis: Twitter content posted by 41 embassy accounts (not explicated) Time frame of analysis: March 2015 Information about variable Variable name/definition: Public diplomacy practices: Communication strategy Level of analysis: Tweet Values: Building on Cull's (2008) taxonomy of public diplomacy: (1) Listening (attempts to collect and collate information about foreign publics and their opinions) (2) Advocacy (activities that promote the country's policies or general interests among foreign publics) (3) Cultural (efforts to promote cultural resources and achievements of a country) (4) International (activities that involve sending national actors abroad or receiving international actors to strategically manage the international environment) (5) News (use of radio, television and digital media to inform and involve foreign audiences) ...

In its broadest sense, diplomacy refers to the conduct of human affairs by peaceful means, employing techniques of persuasion and negotiation. In the more specific sphere of international politics, through the utilisation of such techniques, it has come to be regarded as one of the key processes characterising the international system and a defining institution of the system of sovereign states - often referred to as the "Westphalian" system after the 1684 Peace of Westphalia. Its usage, however, embraces some important distinctions. First, at the state level, it has frequently been used (particularly in studies of diplomatic history) as a synonym for foreign policy – as in "Russian", "German" and "Japanese" diplomacy (foreign policy). More commonly, however, it is used to refer to one means by which such policies are implemented. Second, viewed as an institution of the international system, a distinction can be made between diplomacy as a set of processes and as a set of structures through which these processes are conducted. Debates about the continuing utility of diplomacy in contemporary international politics frequently reflect confusion between these meanings. In the course of the following discussion, the origins of diplomacy are outlined together with differing analytical approaches to its nature and significance as a feature of international politics. The changing nature of diplomatic processes is then discussed followed by an examination of the evolution of the structures through which diplomacy has been conducted at both the state and international levels.

In an age of globalised neoliberalism, prestigious museums have become a diplomatic milieu and their collections a significant token to manifest diplomatic ties between the West and China. This paper explores the 'clash' between 'universal museums' and returning cultural objects to their 'countries of origin' presented in and by the Sino-German Museum Forum. Both countries are seen to use 'the past' for current foreign affairs, not only with regards to each other but also, respectively, towards Africa and Southeast and Central Asia. Germany, for example, utilises the Berlin Palace Humboldt Forum, while China has the One Belt and Road project. Because national museums and their collections are often embedded in colonial histories and are commonly used to forge collective memory, cultural identity and nationalism, to engage critically with museum diplomacy becomes important as it can help to 'reconcile', as well as to provoke new tensions regarding neo-colonialism. ; Peer reviewed

Kayla Crowder and Jerimiah Boyd-Johnson, who are majoring in Political Science, won second place for their pitch, Diplomacy Lab, which presented plans to establish a Diplomacy Lab at EIU. ; https://thekeep.eiu.edu/csi_pitch2021/1001/thumbnail.jpg

Modern international relations are in the process of constant transformation. Since the appearance in the political discourse, public diplomacy has undergone a great evolution. If initially this term was understood as a propaganda euphemism, today it implies a developed multi-channel system of bilateral communication between societies of different countries. In connection with the evolution of the global communication context (the cheapening of communication technologies, the spread of the Internet), the great powers are no longer the only actors capable of disseminating information around the world.

Cultural diplomacy is the promotion of one's culture while understanding that of others. It is more focused on building relations between communities of different countries while embracing the notion that every citizen can be the actor or recipient of cultural diplomacy. This diplomacy has been in practice in Malta for a number of centuries with a perfect example being the St John's Co-Cathedral. Cultural diplomacy evolves with time and today, it is more focused on building cultural relations and strengthening mutual understandings rather than highlighting only the promotion of one's culture. In this regard, this paper will analyse the work done by Malta, especially during the last six years, to enhance its cultural relations such as during the CHOGM 2015, the Maltese Presidency of the Council of the European Union-2017 and Valletta - European Capital of Culture 2018. It will also serve to highlight how Malta has been instrumental in serving as a cultural hub for foreign artists to promote their work in Malta. This paper will refer to interviews with several personalities involved in cultural diplomacy so as to provide a more in-depth analysis of the work done by the country. It will also suggest how Malta can enhance its cultural relations in a constantly changing world. ; peer-reviewed

- ; Globalisation is shorthand for changes in space, time and the relationship between them. This paper, which will be forthcoming as a chapter in a book edited by Andrew Cooper and published by the United Nations University Press, argues that changes in deterritorialisation will not have thoroughgoing effects for diplomacy. A change in time, notably the change to zero lag-time in information flows, is, on the other hand, of key importance. So is the increase in the sheer mass and density of communication. If transcending boundaries is the essence of globalisation, then it stands to reason that state diplomats must sooner or later take cognizance of the other kinds of polities that exist within the system.

China's diplomacy is among the many accomplishments of China during the period of reform and opening up. The People's Republic of China is emerging fully on to the world's stage, and in a largely positive fashion. It now has both interests and a presence in parts of the world completely new to China-such as Latin America and the Middle East. Beijing has managed its relations well with the major world powers-United States, Russia, and the European Union. It has transformed its regional diplomacy in Asia, reasserted a role in Africa, and has become more active in multilateral organizations. Thirty years ago, at the outset of the "reform and opening" era, China acted hesitantly on the world stage, limiting itself largely to its united front tactics against Soviet "social imperialism." Its diplomats were not very sophisticated and rarely left their embassies abroad. In the United Nations, China's preferred medium of voting was to abstain (especially on sensitive issues). In short, China's diplomacy was hesitant and not confident, inward-looking not outward looking, parochial and not sophisticated, reactive not proactive, and composed more of words than deeds. Today, these latter characterizations better describe China's diplomacy.

Following the call for 'open science, open innovation, and open to the world' by the EU Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation Carlos Moedas in 2015, the S4D4C case study looks for applications and implications of open science in science diplomacy. Presentation at the S4D4C Webinar 17 Dec 2020

The role of Omani diplomacy is visible in promoting its foreign policy and fulfilling the Sultan's vision. Since 1970, Oman adopted a different foreign policy in both regional and international arenas characterized by independence, pragmatism, and moderation. This approach was reshaped after Sultan Qaboos bin Said seized rule. His first order of business was to accelerate the steps towards modernizing the Sultanate by adopting a nation-wide social, educational, and cultural reform often referred to as the Omani Renaissance.To translate the Sultan's vision to reality, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) has adopted a well-structured mechanism that will enhance diplomatic relations with various countries of the world. This research highlights Oman's diplomacy strategy post-1970. It focuses on Oman's foreign policy doctrine and examines the different categories of diplomacy that have been practiced in achieving Oman's foreign policy. The research includes the following types of diplomacy: official, mediation, tolerance and co-existence, economy, cultural, water, poet, aviation, and non-governmental diplomacy. This paper attempts to contribute to academia by providing a comprehensive outlook on Oman's diplomacy, focusing on this topic from a practical point of view. It presents Omani diplomacy through dialogue and negotiations. It assembles a clear direction for the reader based on information, including personal communication with Omani diplomats. Since 1970, Oman adopted a different foreign policy in both regional and international arenas characterized by independence, pragmatism, and moderation. This approach was reshaped after Sultan Qaboos bin Said seized rule. His first order of business was to accelerate the steps towards modernizing the Sultanate by adopting a nation-wide social, educational, and cultural reform often referred to as the Omani Renaissance.To translate the Sultan's vision to reality, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) has adopted a well-structured mechanism that will enhance diplomatic relations with various countries of the world. This research highlights Oman's diplomacy strategy post-1970. It focuses on Oman's foreign policy doctrine and examines the different categories of diplomacy that have been practiced in achieving Oman's foreign policy. The research includes the following types of diplomacy: official, mediation, tolerance and co-existence, economy, cultural, water, poet, aviation, and non-governmental diplomacy.

Hydro-diplomacy conversations have up till now been generally state- and basin-centric, focused on formal international relations and transboundary rivers. This paper applies the notion of water diplomacy to a project in rural Southwest Morocco in order to interrogate the scalar potential of water-based environmental peacebuilding. In the Aït Baamrane region of the Anti-Atlas Mountains, a local non-profit oversees the world's largest operational fog-harvesting system, piping potable water collected from the mountains' extensive fog cover to 13 Amazigh villages. Dar Si Hmad's related Ethnographic Field School leverages the fog project's uniqueness to attract scholars to an underrepresented region, where research programming questions mainstream narratives of Morocco and sustainable development while exploring how traditional knowledges can be integrated in scientific innovation. This paper argues that, by intentionally using fog to facilitate collaborative exchange, Dar Si Hmad is engaging in a form of hydro-diplomacy. Drawing from ethnographic data and building on international relations theories of Track Diplomacy, this paper demonstrates how fog water is being used to lay the groundwork for durable peace, intercultural understanding, and symbiotic growth. Such local iterations of hydro-diplomacy should be better understood and integrated with the emerging literature on state-to-state water cooperation in order to develop holistic expertise, share best practices, and promote positive policy interventions.

Finnish sauna diplomacy is a well-known phenomenon in Finland and abroad. Nonetheless, the topic has garnered almost no academic attention – until now. This study takes as its point of departure the notion that material aspects have an effect on how a diplomatic meeting succeeds in its objectives and studies the Finnish sauna as a diplomatic venue in this context. As such, the study can be situated within the emerging field of the material culture of diplomacy, in which diplomatic practices are examined through the perspective of the material culture studies. Points of interest can, for example, be the materiality of diplomatic documents, diplomatic gifts, the material equipment of diplomatic actors, and the materiality of the locations of the diplomatic encounters, as is the case in this thesis. The main question the research aims to answer is, how can the Finnish sauna diplomacy be situated within the material culture of diplomacy? The main question is approached by first finding the answers to the questions of why Finnish diplomats have chosen the sauna as a place for a diplomatic meeting and what kind of impact has this choice of venue had on the objectives they have set for the encounter? In order to do this, 10 Finnish diplomats were interviewed for their insights about the practice. The interviews were in-depth, semi-structured, and conversational in nature and their length varied from 30 minutes to over an hour. The data collected with this method was complemented by miscellaneous written sources such as speeches, biographies, and newspaper articles to draw out a more comprehensive image of the phenomenon. The data was then analyzed hermeneutically reading between the textual material and its context – the Finnish sauna culture, which is introduced before the analyzes section of the thesis. The main findings of the thesis were that the Finnish diplomats had chosen the sauna as a meeting venue consciously and with specials objectives in mind, which they assumed the sauna would help fulfill. As such, it was recognized that the Finnish sauna diplomacy indeed meets the main precondition of the material culture of diplomacy, which is that some material aspects or even the whole material setting of a diplomatic encounter are assumed to have an impact in terms of diplomatic objectives and chosen to be used for this reason. However, a more surprising finding uncovered in the study was that the reputation the Finnish sauna enjoys as a venue of hard-line political negotiating and peace brokering is greatly exaggerated as none of the interviewees had used the sauna in this manner. Instead, the sauna bathing was most often mentioned as a tool for deepening bilateral relationships with work colleagues in order to advance future diplomatic goals or for networking with larger groups of people for whom the sauna space presented itself as a special attraction. Other notable reasons for arranging a diplomatic meeting in a sauna were showcasing Finnish culture and showing hospitality, which can be considered as intrinsically linked to one another in the Finnish context. The study reveals the special impact the sauna space was both assumed to have and, also, in most cases, had in terms of diplomatic objectives. Accordingly, as the first rigorously conducted academic study concentrating on the Finnish sauna diplomacy, the thesis at hand is an original contribution of knowledge on a topic, which, until now, had been shrouded in mystery.

Funding Information: This research is partly based on two projects funded by the Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs through the Finnish University Partnership for International Development UniPID: Marko Keskinen and Erik Salminen were key contributors in both projects. The research by Juho Haapala was funded with a personal postdoc grant from the Maa- ja vesitekniikan tuki ry. Funding Information: This research was possible thanks to the close collaboration with various professionals working on foreign policy, diplomacy and transboundary waters: thank you to all of you. Particularly big thanks to all those interviewed and participating in our workshops and meetings. Special acknowledgements to our wonderful co-authors of two related water diplomacy studies, namely Tuula Honkonen and Antti Belinskij from the University of Eastern Finland and Elina H?kkinen from Tampere University/Aalto University. Thank you for the useful insights and support to all our colleagues, particularly Olli Varis, Lauri Ahopelto, Antti Rautavaara and Sirpa M?enp??. Publisher Copyright: © 2021 The Authors ; Water diplomacy is gaining increasing attention among both researchers and policy-makers. The interest is understandable, given that the concept brings together themes such as shifting geopolitics, new types of diplomacy and increasing water scarcity. Yet, there is no common definition for water diplomacy and actual water diplomacy actions typically vary across multiple tracks and scales. In this article, we seek to contribute to the practice of water diplomacy by introducing a step-wise Water Diplomacy Paths approach for analysing different water diplomacy contexts and related water diplomacy actions. To facilitate this, we recognise five key aspects for water diplomacy (Political; Preventive; Integrative; Cooperative; Technical) and propose a general definition for water diplomacy. We also discuss the possible distinctions between the related concepts of water diplomacy and transboundary water cooperation. The use of the Water Diplomacy Paths approach is demonstrated with brief case studies focusing on Central Asia, the Mekong Region, and the Finnish-Russian water cooperation. The work builds on an extensive literature review and comparative analysis of water diplomacy approaches as well as on a series of workshops and interviews among selected water diplomacy actors, including career diplomats. The suggested Water Diplomacy Paths approach envisions possible ways forward through four main steps: 1) identification of key themes and related actors; 2) analysis of the current state, 3) recognition of (undesired) drivers and related scenarios; and 4) identification of possible water diplomacy actions. We see that the approach has potential to support water diplomacy processes with the help of the distinction it makes between water- and diplomacy-focused activities as well as its consideration of tensions and related actions. Such characteristics also emphasise the complementarity that water diplomacy actions have with more traditional transboundary water cooperation arrangements. We argue that water diplomacy as a concept and as a practical approach provides an example of the future of foreign policy and diplomacy, where the use of shared waters is likely to be of increasing importance. ; Peer reviewed

This work suggests that diplomacy is no longer restricted to a single vocation nor official diplomatic work implemented only through interaction amongst official representatives. In exploring the challenges that these transformations produce, it surveys firstly, the genealogy of diplomacy as a profession, tracing how it transformed from a civic duty into a vocation requiring training and the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills. Secondly, using the lens of the sociology of professions, the development of diplomacy as a distinctive profession is examined, including its importance for the consolidation of the power of modern nation-states. Thirdly, it examines how the landscape of professional diplomacy is being diversified and, we argue, enriched by a series of non-state actors, with their corresponding professionals, transforming the phenomenology of contemporary diplomacy. Rather than seeing this pluralization of diplomatic actors in negative terms as the deprofessionalization of diplomacy, we frame these trends as transprofessionalization, that is, as a productive development that reflects the expanded diplomatic space and intensified pace of global interconnections, networks and relationships, and the new possibilities they unleash for practising diplomacy in different milieus.

CID's Fifth Year This issue celebrates the beginning ofthe Center for Innovative Diplomacy's(CID) fifth year, a year that promises to be our most important ever. Whatbegan as a bold, even audacious dream by three Stanford students in 1982 hasbecome an increasingly influential national institution with more than fourthousand members, nearly a thousand of whom are local elected officials.The following pagescontain brief descriptions ofCID's efforts to reverse thearms race through a progressive coalition of local elected officials (LEO),municipal foreign policies, citizen diplomacy, international computer networking,and alternative security structures. These diverse projects reflect CID'scommitment to developing creative approaches for citizens to becomediplomats themselves. We believe that nuclear war can only be preventedthrough democratic participation in foreign policy-making, here and abroad.