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It is widely assumed that traits primed after the encoding of person information do not lead to assimilation effects on the judgment of that person. The authors challenge this view by providing evidence that post-encoding trait primes can result in assimilative person judgments under certain conditions. In Experiments 1 and 2, we identify the conditions under which these assimilation effects occur. Experiment 1 shows the importance of participants' goals during person information encoding: assimilation is observed when person information is encoded as part of a memorization goal (as opposed to an impression formation goal). The findings of Experiment 2 further reveal that the encoded person information should imply trait concepts rather than being merely vague with respect to the primed trait category. Finally, the results of Experiment 3 suggest that the obtained assimilation effect is driven by differential accessibility for prime-congruent person information.

Front Cover -- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology -- Copyright -- Contents -- Contributors -- Chapter One: Intergroup Perception and Cognition: An Integrative Framework for Understanding the Causes and Consequences ... -- 1. Person Construal -- 1.1. Perceiving Persons and Groups From the "Bottom-Up" -- 1.1.1. Basic Processes in Face Perception: Cognitive Processes, Neural Structures, and Intergroup Effects -- 1.1.2. Configural Face Processing and Intergroup Relations -- 1.1.2.1. Perceptual Dehumanization -- 1.1.2.2. Perceptually Unambiguous Categories Are Distinguished Early and Easily From Faces -- 1.1.2.3. Social Categorization of "Concealable" Categories From Perceptual Cues -- 1.1.2.4. Social Categorization From Bodily Cues -- 1.1.2.5. Mutually Constrained Categories: Shared Perceptual Cues Can Influence Categorization -- 1.2. Perceiving Persons and Groups From the "Top-Down" -- 1.2.1. Group-Based Influences on Visual Processing -- 1.2.2. Novel Group Effects on Face Encoding Processes -- 1.2.3. Top-Down Effects on Body Perception -- 1.2.4. Top-Down Influences on Face Categorization and Memory -- 2. Persons Construed -- 2.1. Activation of Category-Based Knowledge -- 2.1.1. Implicit Identification: Associations Between the Self and Social Categories -- 2.1.2. Implicit Stereotypes: Associations Between Specific Characteristics and Social Categories -- 2.1.3. Implicit Prejudice: Associations Between Evaluations and Social Categories -- 2.1.4. Relations Between Implicit Identification, Stereotyping, and Prejudice -- 2.2. Downstream Consequences of the Activation of Category-Based Knowledge -- 2.2.1. Emotion Identification -- 2.2.2. Caring About Outgroups -- 2.2.3. Intergroup Behaviors -- 2.3. Strategies to Reduce the Activation of Category-Based Knowledge and Biased Behavior -- 2.3.1. Increasing Implicit Identification.

This paper, based on theories of ecological perception, embodied motivated cognition, and evolutionary psychology, proposes that pictures elicit evolved biologically imperative responses more quickly and thoroughly than do words. These biologically imperative responses are directly responsible for evolved automatic reactions away from biological threats (e.g. escaping predators, avoiding disease and noxious stimuli) and towards opportunities (e.g. consuming food, approaching mates, finding shelter) in the environment. When elicited, these responses take time to occur and may delay or interfere with other types of behavior. Thus, when environmental information is presented in pictures (which should elicit larger biological responses than words) biological responses should interfere more with higher order tasks like information processing and cognitive decision-making. To test this proposition we designed an experiment in which participants performed speeded categorizations of 60 pairs of matched pleasant and unpleasant environmental opportunities and threats. They categorized the items based on their form (is this a word or a picture?) or based on how the picture made them feel (is this pleasant or unpleasant to you?). If pictures do elicit greater biologically imperative responses than their word counterparts, participants should be able to make form decisions faster than feeling decisions, especially when presented with words rather than pictures and especially when the words and pictures have less biological relevance. This main proposition was supported. Implications for this proposition in terms of communication theory are discussed.

In recent years, intensified attention in the humanities has been paid to data: to data modeling, data visualization, "big data". The Women Writers Project has dedicated significant effort over the past thirty years to creating what Christoph Schöch calls "smart clean data": a moderate-sized collection of early modern women's writing, carefully transcribed and corrected, with detailed digital text encoding that has evolved in response to research and changing standards for text representation. But that data—whether considered as a publication through Women Writers Online, or as a proof of the viability of text encoding approaches like those expressed in the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Guidelines—is only the most visible part of a much larger ecology. That ecology includes complex human systems, evolving sets of tools, and a massive apparatus of documentation and organizational memory that have made it possible for the project to work coherently over such a long period of time. In this article we examine the WWP's information systems in relation to the project's larger scholarly goals, with the aim of showing where they may generalize to the needs of other projects.

AbstractActive inference offers a unified theory of perception, learning, and decision-making at computational and neural levels of description. In this article, we address the worry that active inference may be in tension with the belief–desire–intention (BDI) model within folk psychology because it does not include terms for desires (or other conative constructs) at the mathematical level of description. To resolve this concern, we first provide a brief review of the historical progression from predictive coding to active inference, enabling us to distinguish between active inference formulations of motor control (which need not have desires under folk psychology) and active inference formulations of decision processes (which do have desires within folk psychology). We then show that, despite a superficial tension when viewed at the mathematical level of description, the active inference formalism contains terms that are readily identifiable as encoding both the objects of desire and the strength of desire at the psychological level of description. We demonstrate this with simple simulations of an active inference agent motivated to leave a dark room for different reasons. Despite their consistency, we further show how active inference may increase the granularity of folk-psychological descriptions by highlighting distinctions between drives to seek information versus reward—and how it may also offer more precise, quantitative folk-psychological predictions. Finally, we consider how the implicitly conative components of active inference may have partial analogues (i.e., "as if" desires) in other systems describable by the broader free energy principle to which it conforms.

Die kaufmännischen Berufe, wie sie auf der Grundlage des Berufsbildungsgesetzes in Aus- und Fortbildungsordnungen geregelt sind, als umfassende "Berufsfamilie" und nicht als Einzelberufe zu untersuchen war die besondere Aufgabe des GUK-Projekts ["Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede kaufmännisch-betriebswirtschaftlicher Aus- und Fortbildungsberufe"]. Der Autor gibt in seinem einleitenden Beitrag einen Überblick über die maßgeblichen Fragestellungen und das daraus abgeleitete methodische Gesamtdesign des Projekts und stellt dieses in Verbindung zum Selbstverständnis des Bundesinstituts im Hinblick auf ordnungsbezogene Berufsforschung. Anschließend legt er detailliert das Vorgehen bei der computergestützten Inhaltsanalyse dar und bezieht es auf vorangegangene Forschungsansätze im Feld der Ordnungsmittelforschung. Die Ausführungen verdeutlichen die vielen Maßnahmen zur Absicherung der Datenqualität, die notwendig waren, um aus qualitativem Entscheidungshandeln der beteiligten Codiererinnen und Codierer zu verlässlichen Daten für die künftige Ordnungsarbeit im Feld der kaufmännischen Berufe zu kommen. Abschließend gibt er selbstkritische Hinweise zum methodischen Vorgehen und führt positiv den vielfältigen Ergebnistransfer in Forschung, Politik und Ordnungspraxis an, der bereits parallel zur Forschungsarbeit im Projekt stattgefunden hat. (DIPF/Orig.)

In groups, individuals often adjust their behavior to the majority's. Here, we provide a brief introduction into the research on social conformity and review the first, very recent investigations elucidating the underlying neurocognitive mechanisms. Multiple studies suggest that conformity is a behavioral adjustment based on reinforcement-learning mechanisms in posterior medial frontal cortex and ventral striatum. It has also been suggested that the detection of cognitive inconsistency and the modulation of basic encoding processes are involved. Together, recent findings provide valuable insight into the neural and cognitive mechanisms underlying social conformity and clearly point up the need for further studies in this field.

Embodied Conflict- Front Cover -- Embodied Conflict -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Notes -- Introduction -- Notes -- Chapter 1: Some Basics About Humans as Living Organisms -- At Birth No Knowing -- We Navigate to Survive -- Only Our Five Senses -- Three Levels of Survival -- Constant Process of Environmental Assessment -- Chapter 2: The Neural Encoding Function -- Prenatal Beginnings -- Birth and the Beginning of Meaning Making -- Chapter 3: Some Key Characteristics of the Neural Encoding System -- Connectivity, Coherence, and Consistency -- Neural Stability and Plasticity -- Neural Activation -- Delay between Stimulus and Response -- Expectancy -- The Dorsal and Ventral Systems and their Balance -- Memory -- Chapter 4: Implications for Conflict and its Resolution -- Communication -- Perception -- Identity -- Relationship -- Trust, Betrayal, and Trauma -- Priming, Mirroring, and Affect Contagion -- Knowing and Certainty, Learning and Change -- Chapter 5: What Can We Do with This Information? Applications to Practice -- Theoretical Issues -- Stages of a Process -- Practice Issues -- Process Design Considerations -- Chapter 6: Implications for Training -- Chapter 7: Conclusion -- Appendix: Digest of Specific Practice Approaches Discussed or Suggested in the Text -- References -- Index

The demand for assurance on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has increased due to growing concerns about climate change and the introduction of new legislation and emissions trading schemes in many countries. GHG assurance engagements necessitate the involvement of practitioners from accounting and non-accounting disciplines to form multidisciplinary teams (MDTs). Focusing on training intervention, this thesis investigates whether two training techniques drawn from the educational and cognitive psychology literature, analogical encoding and collaborative learning, are effective in improving individual and MDT performance in conducting a complex analytical procedures task commonly completed in GHG assurance engagements. Analogical encoding is a technique that facilitates encoding of knowledge by comparing two worked examples simultaneously whereas collaborative learning refers to a technique that encourages learners to work together to facilitate discussion and understanding when learning new tasks.The thesis employs a between-subjects experiment using postgraduate students (as surrogates for novice practitioners) to examine the research hypotheses. The study finds that for complex tasks such as the analytical procedures task, a combination of analogical encoding and collaborative learning techniques leads to the highest learning outcomes for individuals and teams. At the individual level, these results suggest that the combination of the two techniques allows simultaneously the reduction in cognitive load, facilitation of deep processing, and development of knowledge structures during learning thereby facilitating improved performance. At the team level, the combined techniques facilitate team member familiarity and sharing of workload, resulting in enhanced process gains. These processes enable team members to perform effective and efficient hypothesis generation and objective evaluation of hypotheses (i.e., less biased towards the inherited hypothesis), which in turn increases the likelihood that they will select the correct causal hypothesis. An analysis was also conducted on the role of team member cognitive structures (i.e., the manner in which knowledge that is important to team functioning is mentally organised, represented, and distributed within the team) and reveals that the two training techniques do not affect all measures of team member cognitive structures and these constructs do not mediate all the relationships between team training inputs and team performance.

Recent evidence suggests that humans can form and later retrieve new semantic relations unconsciously by way of hippocampus-the key structure also recruited for conscious relational (episodic) memory. If the hippocampus subserves both conscious and unconscious relational encoding/retrieval, one would expect the hippocampus to be place of unconscious-conscious interactions during memory retrieval. We tested this hypothesis in an fMRI experiment probing the interaction between the unconscious and conscious retrieval of face-associated information. For the establishment of unconscious relational memories, we presented subliminal (masked) combinations of unfamiliar faces and written occupations ("actor" or "politician"). At test, we presented the former subliminal faces, but now supraliminally, as cues for the reactivation of the unconsciously associated occupations. We hypothesized that unconscious reactivation of the associated occupation-actor or politician-would facilitate or inhibit the subsequent conscious retrieval of a celebrity's occupation, which was also actor or politician. Depending on whether the reactivated unconscious occupation was congruent or incongruent to the celebrity's occupation, we expected either quicker or delayed conscious retrieval process. Conscious retrieval was quicker in the congruent relative to a neutral baseline condition but not delayed in the incongruent condition. fMRI data collected during subliminal face-occupation encoding confirmed previous evidence that the hippocampus was interacting with neocortical storage sites of semantic knowledge to support relational encoding. fMRI data collected at test revealed that the facilitated conscious retrieval was paralleled by deactivations in the hippocampus and neocortical storage sites of semantic knowledge. We assume that the unconscious reactivation has pre-activated overlapping relational representations in the hippocampus reducing the neural effort for conscious retrieval. This finding supports the notion of synergistic interactions between conscious and unconscious relational memories in a common, cohesive hippocampal-neocortical memory space.

Communication between ground controllers and pilots was simulated in a short-term memory task in order to explore sources of memory errors in the air traffic control system. As expected from prior short-term memory research, two major determinants of error probability were (1) amount of information that the pilot has to process in a given time and (2) retention interval between the time information is transmitted from the controller and the time it is acted on (recalled) by the pilot. Additionally, the manner of encoding numerical information was varied. The result of this manipulation indicated that, as suggested by recent research in cognitive psychology, the current information-encoding scheme has substantial room for improvement in terms of minimizing memory failure.