Suchergebnisse

The problem of comparison of situations is often faced by courts. There is no criterion that could direct a proper comparison in discrimination cases. The requirement to compare with other persons in a similar situation allows comparison of real situations and the possibility to compare situations in the past and hypothetical situations. The law omissions authorise courts to use the instrument of comparison flexibly, so consequently the problem of impartiality and incoherence of implementation of non-discrimination law can be raised. As the main element in examining the fact of direct discrimination, the element of comparison is criticised in present scientific papers because it is desirable but not a necessary element. It is considered that the main element in examining the fact of direct discrimination is less favourable treatment—it can be established following the criterion only of exceptional feature. There has to be a direct link between less favourable treatment and the grounds of discrimination consolidated in the law. The practice of stereotypes is widely considered as form of direct discrimination. The perpetrator's aim and purpose to discriminate is not a necessary condition of liability even if the respondent appeal on the customers is money saving or conflict avoiding. Examining the basis of justifying direct discrimination, the justifications, exceptions, and exclusions are distinguished. Exceptions that can justify direct discrimination are finitive and narrow. Lithuanian law prohibits direct discrimination justification apart from narrow exceptions consolidated in the legislation. One of the exceptions that is consolidated in the legislation is the necessary and genuine occupational requirements that must be proportional and lawful.

The problem of comparison of situations is often faced by courts. There is no criterion that could direct a proper comparison in discrimination cases. The requirement to compare with other persons in a similar situation allows comparison of real situations and the possibility to compare situations in the past and hypothetical situations. The law omissions authorise courts to use the instrument of comparison flexibly, so consequently the problem of impartiality and incoherence of implementation of non-discrimination law can be raised. As the main element in examining the fact of direct discrimination, the element of comparison is criticised in present scientific papers because it is desirable but not a necessary element. It is considered that the main element in examining the fact of direct discrimination is less favourable treatment—it can be established following the criterion only of exceptional feature. There has to be a direct link between less favourable treatment and the grounds of discrimination consolidated in the law. The practice of stereotypes is widely considered as form of direct discrimination. The perpetrator's aim and purpose to discriminate is not a necessary condition of liability even if the respondent appeal on the customers is money saving or conflict avoiding. Examining the basis of justifying direct discrimination, the justifications, exceptions, and exclusions are distinguished. Exceptions that can justify direct discrimination are finitive and narrow. Lithuanian law prohibits direct discrimination justification apart from narrow exceptions consolidated in the legislation. One of the exceptions that is consolidated in the legislation is the necessary and genuine occupational requirements that must be proportional and lawful.

This article presents an analysis of Soviet law on the family which was valid in Lithuania from 1940, in order to ascertain how it reflected gender equality, how (or if) it was formed, the legal measures the state harnessed in order to create family and gender relation models in various areas of life, and what kind of family and gender policy formed as a result. The law is contextualised in this paper by immersing it in the social reality of its time. This allows us to determine what norms and provisions determined the political and legal resolutions of the Soviet authorities, and to discuss their influence on society. The two most impor-tant periods in Soviet gender policy are distinguished. Initially revolutionary and radical in Lithuania, with the aim of changing society to realise its goals, after the 1950s, state policy became more reactive, and adapted to the changed, modernised society and its needs. This paper proposes to see changes to women's situation during the Soviet period not as emancipation, but as (double) mobilisation. The reasons for the stagnation in masculinity in Soviet law and policy, for not keeping up with or adapting to the rapidly changing social reality, are also analysed. The contradictions in Soviet policy regarding the family and gender are shown, where it proved impossible to unambiguously apply 'conservative-liberal' or 'tradition-al-liberal' distinctions in both policy and reality.

This article presents an analysis of Soviet law on the family which was valid in Lithuania from 1940, in order to ascertain how it reflected gender equality, how (or if) it was formed, the legal measures the state harnessed in order to create family and gender relation models in various areas of life, and what kind of family and gender policy formed as a result. The law is contextualised in this paper by immersing it in the social reality of its time. This allows us to determine what norms and provisions determined the political and legal resolutions of the Soviet authorities, and to discuss their influence on society. The two most impor-tant periods in Soviet gender policy are distinguished. Initially revolutionary and radical in Lithuania, with the aim of changing society to realise its goals, after the 1950s, state policy became more reactive, and adapted to the changed, modernised society and its needs. This paper proposes to see changes to women's situation during the Soviet period not as emancipation, but as (double) mobilisation. The reasons for the stagnation in masculinity in Soviet law and policy, for not keeping up with or adapting to the rapidly changing social reality, are also analysed. The contradictions in Soviet policy regarding the family and gender are shown, where it proved impossible to unambiguously apply 'conservative-liberal' or 'tradition-al-liberal' distinctions in both policy and reality.

This article presents an analysis of Soviet law on the family which was valid in Lithuania from 1940, in order to ascertain how it reflected gender equality, how (or if) it was formed, the legal measures the state harnessed in order to create family and gender relation models in various areas of life, and what kind of family and gender policy formed as a result. The law is contextualised in this paper by immersing it in the social reality of its time. This allows us to determine what norms and provisions determined the political and legal resolutions of the Soviet authorities, and to discuss their influence on society. The two most impor-tant periods in Soviet gender policy are distinguished. Initially revolutionary and radical in Lithuania, with the aim of changing society to realise its goals, after the 1950s, state policy became more reactive, and adapted to the changed, modernised society and its needs. This paper proposes to see changes to women's situation during the Soviet period not as emancipation, but as (double) mobilisation. The reasons for the stagnation in masculinity in Soviet law and policy, for not keeping up with or adapting to the rapidly changing social reality, are also analysed. The contradictions in Soviet policy regarding the family and gender are shown, where it proved impossible to unambiguously apply 'conservative-liberal' or 'tradition-al-liberal' distinctions in both policy and reality.

This article presents an analysis of Soviet law on the family which was valid in Lithuania from 1940, in order to ascertain how it reflected gender equality, how (or if) it was formed, the legal measures the state harnessed in order to create family and gender relation models in various areas of life, and what kind of family and gender policy formed as a result. The law is contextualised in this paper by immersing it in the social reality of its time. This allows us to determine what norms and provisions determined the political and legal resolutions of the Soviet authorities, and to discuss their influence on society. The two most impor-tant periods in Soviet gender policy are distinguished. Initially revolutionary and radical in Lithuania, with the aim of changing society to realise its goals, after the 1950s, state policy became more reactive, and adapted to the changed, modernised society and its needs. This paper proposes to see changes to women's situation during the Soviet period not as emancipation, but as (double) mobilisation. The reasons for the stagnation in masculinity in Soviet law and policy, for not keeping up with or adapting to the rapidly changing social reality, are also analysed. The contradictions in Soviet policy regarding the family and gender are shown, where it proved impossible to unambiguously apply 'conservative-liberal' or 'tradition-al-liberal' distinctions in both policy and reality.

Earnings are the fundamental determinant of economic welfare for employed individuals, as well as of the potential gain to market employment for those not currently employed. Earnings are important as a social indicator specifically in relation to gender equality. Ten years after the Beijing conference the gender wage gap still exists in the EU labour market. This paper gives a brief review of economic theories and different approaches to explain the wage gap problem and importance of legislation to combat wage discrimination.

Earnings are the fundamental determinant of economic welfare for employed individuals, as well as of the potential gain to market employment for those not currently employed. Earnings are important as a social indicator specifically in relation to gender equality. Ten years after the Beijing conference the gender wage gap still exists in the EU labour market. This paper gives a brief review of economic theories and different approaches to explain the wage gap problem and importance of legislation to combat wage discrimination.

Female entrepreneurship plays a significant role in the improvement of the country's social policies and makes positive changes in the field of gender equality and women economic empowerment. Despite the fact that participation of women in innovation, information technology and social business development is a priority area in the political agenda for women's empowerment in Lithuania and in the European Union, women still face greater barriers to establishing new enterprices, access funds and loans, and be an equal player in the business sector. The principle study areas of this issue are social and economic indicators in Lithuania and across the European Union, social gender roles in family and labour market, innovation policy, social and legal policies. Women entrepreneurs as a research subject are perceived as women innovators, creating successful businesses, leading innovative commercial projects, addressing economic and social situations of major importance to the society. An integrated and inclusive gender equality policy in the business sector should include equal access to business funding and busness networks, improve social security system and legal frameworks, achieve equality in family roles and childcare, and promote women participation in inovative business activitites through improving business skills and level of confidence.

Female entrepreneurship plays a significant role in the improvement of the country's social policies and makes positive changes in the field of gender equality and women economic empowerment. Despite the fact that participation of women in innovation, information technology and social business development is a priority area in the political agenda for women's empowerment in Lithuania and in the European Union, women still face greater barriers to establishing new enterprices, access funds and loans, and be an equal player in the business sector. The principle study areas of this issue are social and economic indicators in Lithuania and across the European Union, social gender roles in family and labour market, innovation policy, social and legal policies. Women entrepreneurs as a research subject are perceived as women innovators, creating successful businesses, leading innovative commercial projects, addressing economic and social situations of major importance to the society. An integrated and inclusive gender equality policy in the business sector should include equal access to business funding and busness networks, improve social security system and legal frameworks, achieve equality in family roles and childcare, and promote women participation in inovative business activitites through improving business skills and level of confidence.

Female entrepreneurship plays a significant role in the improvement of the country's social policies and makes positive changes in the field of gender equality and women economic empowerment. Despite the fact that participation of women in innovation, information technology and social business development is a priority area in the political agenda for women's empowerment in Lithuania and in the European Union, women still face greater barriers to establishing new enterprices, access funds and loans, and be an equal player in the business sector. The principle study areas of this issue are social and economic indicators in Lithuania and across the European Union, social gender roles in family and labour market, innovation policy, social and legal policies. Women entrepreneurs as a research subject are perceived as women innovators, creating successful businesses, leading innovative commercial projects, addressing economic and social situations of major importance to the society. An integrated and inclusive gender equality policy in the business sector should include equal access to business funding and busness networks, improve social security system and legal frameworks, achieve equality in family roles and childcare, and promote women participation in inovative business activitites through improving business skills and level of confidence.

Female entrepreneurship plays a significant role in the improvement of the country's social policies and makes positive changes in the field of gender equality and women economic empowerment. Despite the fact that participation of women in innovation, information technology and social business development is a priority area in the political agenda for women's empowerment in Lithuania and in the European Union, women still face greater barriers to establishing new enterprices, access funds and loans, and be an equal player in the business sector. The principle study areas of this issue are social and economic indicators in Lithuania and across the European Union, social gender roles in family and labour market, innovation policy, social and legal policies. Women entrepreneurs as a research subject are perceived as women innovators, creating successful businesses, leading innovative commercial projects, addressing economic and social situations of major importance to the society. An integrated and inclusive gender equality policy in the business sector should include equal access to business funding and busness networks, improve social security system and legal frameworks, achieve equality in family roles and childcare, and promote women participation in inovative business activitites through improving business skills and level of confidence.

The principle of equality is one of the most important principle in the democratic State. The principle of non-discrimination is mentioned in the many of international treaties, established in the European Union law as well as in national law systems. This work analysis conception and matter of the principle of equality in Labour Law. Furthmore, it is analysed the European Union Directives combating discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief, disability, age, sexual orientation, racial or ethic origin, sex, and putting these documents into effect in Lithuanian Labour Law. In this work analysis protection mechanism (what kind of institutions protect violated rights; how persons can use the right to compensation or reparation; also specific of the rules of burden of proof) of rights of persons who consider themselves wronged by failured to apply the principle of equal treatment to them in the workplace. Through deep analysis it is compared and researched Lithuanian and the European Union legal acts, practice of the Court of Justice of the European Union, and doctrine.

The principle of equality is one of the most important principle in the democratic State. The principle of non-discrimination is mentioned in the many of international treaties, established in the European Union law as well as in national law systems. This work analysis conception and matter of the principle of equality in Labour Law. Furthmore, it is analysed the European Union Directives combating discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief, disability, age, sexual orientation, racial or ethic origin, sex, and putting these documents into effect in Lithuanian Labour Law. In this work analysis protection mechanism (what kind of institutions protect violated rights; how persons can use the right to compensation or reparation; also specific of the rules of burden of proof) of rights of persons who consider themselves wronged by failured to apply the principle of equal treatment to them in the workplace. Through deep analysis it is compared and researched Lithuanian and the European Union legal acts, practice of the Court of Justice of the European Union, and doctrine.

The principle of equality is one of the most important principle in the democratic State. The principle of non-discrimination is mentioned in the many of international treaties, established in the European Union law as well as in national law systems. This work analysis conception and matter of the principle of equality in Labour Law. Furthmore, it is analysed the European Union Directives combating discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief, disability, age, sexual orientation, racial or ethic origin, sex, and putting these documents into effect in Lithuanian Labour Law. In this work analysis protection mechanism (what kind of institutions protect violated rights; how persons can use the right to compensation or reparation; also specific of the rules of burden of proof) of rights of persons who consider themselves wronged by failured to apply the principle of equal treatment to them in the workplace. Through deep analysis it is compared and researched Lithuanian and the European Union legal acts, practice of the Court of Justice of the European Union, and doctrine.