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The aim of this study was to present private and official codifications concerning the topic of responsibility of international organizations. Moreover, it highlighted some controversial issues which occurred during the work of International Law Commission (ILC). The topic of responsibility of international organizations was analyzed both by private bodies such as Institute de Droit International and International Law Association and – as mentioned above – ILC. The efforts of Institute de Droit International resulted in a resolution on The Legal Consequences for Member States of the Non-fulfilment by International Organizations of their Obligations toward Third Parties. While in 1996 International Law Association studied these topics, a Committee on the Accountability of International Organizations was established. These private drafts paid attention of ILC to some legal issues which helped ILC to identify problems which require further discussion. After completion of its work on State responsibility in 2001, ILC decided to include the topic Responsibility of International Organizations in its work program. Mr G. Gaja was appointed the Special Rapporteur and in years 2003-2011 he presented eight reports which took into account the comments and observations received from governments and international organizations. In his reports he largely followed the model of Articles on State Responsibility for Internationally Wrongful Acts. In 2011 the Commission adopted the draft of 67 articles on Responsibility of International Organizations, divided into six parts. The Draft Articles aimed at codification of a set of secondary rules applicable to a wide range of international organizations. The codifications of rules on the responsibility of international organizations was a very difficult task due to diversity of international organizations, which differ in size, functions and competence. Furthermore, there is a lack of relevant practice that would allow to elaborate the principles relating to responsibility of international organizations. Nonetheless, the responsibility for international wrongful acts is the most important institution of international law irrespective of the subject which committed a wrongful act. ; Artykuł nie zawiera abstraktu w języku polskim

Artykuł wpisuje się w nurt badań dotyczących suwerenności państw w międzynarodowych organizacjach integracyjnych, w których uczestnictwo wiąże się z największymi ograniczeniami w zakresie kompetencji i autonomii państw, w porównaniu z udziałem w innego typu organizacjach. Zostaje wyjaśnione pojęcie suwerenności, zwracając uwagę na jej wymiar prawny i polityczny, jak również międzynarodowej organizacji integracyjnej, która występuje tylko w grupie organizacji regionalnych. Artykuł zawiera analizę zróżnicowanego, z punktu widzenia suwerenności, usytuowania państw w organizacjach integracyjnych, w których stosowane są nowego typu rozwiązania instytucjonalne, w tym ponadnarodowe. Badania odnotowują znaczące zróżnicowanie rozwiązań instytucjonalnych, pokazujące, że modele zastosowane w Europie nie znajdują uniwersalnego zastosowania. Widoczne jest odmienne podejście do suwerenności w procesach integracyjnych i organizacjach międzynarodowych na Zachodzie oraz wśród państw rozwijających się, które większą wagę przywiązują do ochrony i zabezpieczenia suwerenności w ramach organizacji. ; This article is one of many, which deal with research on state sovereignty in international integration organizations, where participation implies more limited autonomy and competition than in organizations of other types. The notion of sovereignty is being explained, pointing at its legal and political dimention, as well as of international integration organizations, which belong to a group of regional organizations only. This paper concerns the analysis of differentiated placement of states from sosvereignty point of view in the integration organizations, where new instruments have been implemented, including transnational ones. The research shows a considerable differentiation of institutional frameworks, meaning that their models introduced in Europe have no universal character. One can see different attitude towards the sovereignty notion in integration processes and in international organizations in the West as well as in developing countries, which focus mostly on sovereignty protection within the organization itself.

Artykuł wpisuje się w nurt badań dotyczących suwerenności państw w międzynarodowych organizacjach integracyjnych, w których uczestnictwo wiąże się z największymi ograniczeniami w zakresie kompetencji i autonomii państw, w porównaniu z udziałem w innego typu organizacjach. Zostaje wyjaśnione pojęcie suwerenności, zwracając uwagę na jej wymiar prawny i polityczny, jak również międzynarodowej organizacji integracyjnej, która występuje tylko w grupie organizacji regionalnych. Artykuł zawiera analizę zróżnicowanego, z punktu widzenia suwerenności, usytuowania państw w organizacjach integracyjnych, w których stosowane są nowego typu rozwiązania instytucjonalne, w tym ponadnarodowe. Badania odnotowują znaczące zróżnicowanie rozwiązań instytucjonalnych, pokazujące, że modele zastosowane w Europie nie znajdują uniwersalnego zastosowania. Widoczne jest odmienne podejście do suwerenności w procesach integracyjnych i organizacjach międzynarodowych na Zachodzie oraz wśród państw rozwijających się, które większą wagę przywiązują do ochrony i zabezpieczenia suwerenności w ramach organizacji. ; This article is one of many, which deal with research on state sovereignty in international integration organizations, where participation implies more limited autonomy and competition than in organizations of other types. The notion of sovereignty is being explained, pointing at its legal and political dimention, as well as of international integration organizations, which belong to a group of regional organizations only. This paper concerns the analysis of differentiated placement of states from sosvereignty point of view in the integration organizations, where new instruments have been implemented, including transnational ones. The research shows a considerable differentiation of institutional frameworks, meaning that their models introduced in Europe have no universal character. One can see different attitude towards the sovereignty notion in integration processes and in international organizations in the West as well as in developing countries, which focus mostly on sovereignty protection within the organization itself.

The Treaty of Lisbon has introduced a number of significant changes that enable the European Union to participate in the works of other international organizations. It should however be underscored that there is still no single legal basis in the Treaties, which would clearly provide for EU membership in other international organizations. For this reason, the decisions on EU accession to other international organizations are usually based on a combination of several provisions of the Treaties at the same time. The Treaties also do not define the precise rules which would regulate the issue of statements by the EU and its Member States in other international organizations. These rules were adopted by the Council, Member States, the Commission and the European External Action Service on 22 October 2011, as the 'EU Statements in multilateral organizations – General Arrangements'. The General Arrangements' legal nature indicates that they are legally binding and, at least in part, their provisions constitute some kind of an agreement between the parties involved in their adoption.

Industry specialized journalism is essential for the creation and use of computer (video) games. They are representing one of industries from creative economy which is emerging on early XXI century. Media representatives inform about the progress in development of new titles, test them before their release date, show developers the advantages and disadvantages of their productions, impact on user feedback and describe events and trends related to the communities directly involved in the games, as well as with their surroundings. The article aims to present a case study of human resources management model in the Internet editorial absorbed in topics connected to computer games which is a part of big media company.

Non profit organizations play important role in every democratic country. Their role is even bigger when given economy has to cope with different problems, because organizations support these spheres of social life that are neglected by the state. In this paper condition of American non profit sector between 2006 and 2009 is discussed. As a result of conducted analysis of The Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University reports and information from The Internal Revenue Service it turns that, despite the crisis time, non profit organizations are in good shape. It is connected with a big engagement of almost the whole American society that supports organizations in financial way as well as giving time and work. Such big social support non profit organizations stems both from conviction, that this is a pattern of real American society, and from beneficial tax solutions. ; Non profit organizations play important role in every democratic country. Their role is even bigger when given economy has to cope with different problems, because organizations support these spheres of social life that are neglected by the state. In this paper condition of American non profit sector between 2006 and 2009 is discussed. As a result of conducted analysis of The Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University reports and information from The Internal Revenue Service it turns that, despite the crisis time, non profit organizations are in good shape. It is connected with a big engagement of almost the whole American society that supports organizations in financial way as well as giving time and work. Such big social support non profit organizations stems both from conviction, that this is a pattern of real American society, and from beneficial tax solutions.

Non profit organizations play important role in every democratic country. Their role is even bigger when given economy has to cope with different problems, because organizations support these spheres of social life that are neglected by the state. In this paper condition of American non profit sector between 2006 and 2009 is discussed. As a result of conducted analysis of The Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University reports and information from The Internal Revenue Service it turns that, despite the crisis time, non profit organizations are in good shape. It is connected with a big engagement of almost the whole American society that supports organizations in financial way as well as giving time and work. Such big social support non profit organizations stems both from conviction, that this is a pattern of real American society, and from beneficial tax solutions. ; Non profit organizations play important role in every democratic country. Their role is even bigger when given economy has to cope with different problems, because organizations support these spheres of social life that are neglected by the state. In this paper condition of American non profit sector between 2006 and 2009 is discussed. As a result of conducted analysis of The Center on Philanthropy at Indiana University reports and information from The Internal Revenue Service it turns that, despite the crisis time, non profit organizations are in good shape. It is connected with a big engagement of almost the whole American society that supports organizations in financial way as well as giving time and work. Such big social support non profit organizations stems both from conviction, that this is a pattern of real American society, and from beneficial tax solutions.

The given definition of the organizations' pathology identifies it as a relatively permanent disability of organization, which results in the waste exceeding the limits of social tolerance. Pathologies are therefore for organizations the "deviation from the state of health" and are assessed as very harmful to itself. The thesis of this paper is, that the symptoms of the organizations' pathology are not a new phenomenon, but constantly occurring in the functioning of the organizations. We can say that there are always both "old" and "new" signs of organizations' pathology. There is a need for the constant analysis of those processes and that for the sake of the future of the organization, they will be gradually eliminated from the life of the organization, because the lack of efficiency or some degree of disability in the functioning of the organization means high costs (both moral and social), the lack of effective implementation of the objectives and the lack of full confidence in the organization. ; Udostępnienie publikacji Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego finansowane w ramach projektu "Doskonałość naukowa kluczem do doskonałości kształcenia". Projekt realizowany jest ze środków Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego w ramach Programu Operacyjnego Wiedza Edukacja Rozwój; nr umowy: POWER.03.05.00-00-Z092/17-00.

The aim of the article is to present the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the process of migrant integration in Poland. To achieve this goal, a case study of Łomża and actions taken by a local NGO towards migrants are analyzed. The article was written on the basis of desk research and field research, in which the technique of individual in-depth interviews conducted with the representatives of local authorities and non-governmental organizations was used. The analysis of the NGOs' activities towards the migrants in Łomża showed that these are typical activities taken by NGOs. However, the fact that these actions have taken place in a medium-sized city make it unique, different from the activities taking place in other large cities.

Przedmiotem artykułu jest analiza dokumentów programowych i publicystyki trzech ruchów i nurtów radykalnie lewicowych, które były reprezentowane przez takie organizacje międzynarodowe, jak: the Initiative of Communist and Workers' Parties in order to study and elaborate European issues and to coordinate their activity (CWPE), the International Socialist Alternative (ISA) i the International Socialist Tendency (IST). W każdej z wymienionych organizacji aktywne były również polskie partie i grupy polityczne. Celem artykułu jest określenie przyczyn i treści krytyki Unii Europejskiej przez wymienione organizacje, wskazanie podobieństw i różnic między nimi, a także określenie różnic pomiędzy krytyką integracji europejskiej dokonaną przez ruchy radykalnej lewicy oraz ruch anarchistyczny i ruchy radykalnie nacjonalistyczne. Analiza została przeprowadzona z uwzględnieniem krytyki działań elit Unii Europejskiej i rządów państw europejskich w zwalczaniu pandemii SARS-CoV-2. ; The subject of the article is the analysis of program documents and journalism of three radical leftist movements and currents, which were represented by such international organizations as: the Initiative of Communist and Workers' Parties in order to study and elaborate European issues and to coordinate their activity (CWPE), the International Socialist Alternative (ISA) and the International Socialist Tendency (IST). Polish parties and political groups were also active in each of the aforementioned organizations. The aim of the article is to define the reasons and content of the criticism of the European Union by the aforementioned organizations, to indicate the similarities and differences between them, as well as to define the differences between the criticism of European integration made by the radical left, anarchist and radically nationalist movements. The analysis was conducted taking into account the criticism of the actions of the European Union elites and European governments in combating the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

Przedmiotem artykułu jest analiza dokumentów programowych i publicystyki trzech ruchów i nurtów radykalnie lewicowych, które były reprezentowane przez takie organizacje międzynarodowe, jak: the Initiative of Communist and Workers' Parties in order to study and elaborate European issues and to coordinate their activity (CWPE), the International Socialist Alternative (ISA) i the International Socialist Tendency (IST). W każdej z wymienionych organizacji aktywne były również polskie partie i grupy polityczne. Celem artykułu jest określenie przyczyn i treści krytyki Unii Europejskiej przez wymienione organizacje, wskazanie podobieństw i różnic między nimi, a także określenie różnic pomiędzy krytyką integracji europejskiej dokonaną przez ruchy radykalnej lewicy oraz ruch anarchistyczny i ruchy radykalnie nacjonalistyczne. Analiza została przeprowadzona z uwzględnieniem krytyki działań elit Unii Europejskiej i rządów państw europejskich w zwalczaniu pandemii SARS-CoV-2. ; The subject of the article is the analysis of program documents and journalism of three radical leftist movements and currents, which were represented by such international organizations as: the Initiative of Communist and Workers' Parties in order to study and elaborate European issues and to coordinate their activity (CWPE), the International Socialist Alternative (ISA) and the International Socialist Tendency (IST). Polish parties and political groups were also active in each of the aforementioned organizations. The aim of the article is to define the reasons and content of the criticism of the European Union by the aforementioned organizations, to indicate the similarities and differences between them, as well as to define the differences between the criticism of European integration made by the radical left, anarchist and radically nationalist movements. The analysis was conducted taking into account the criticism of the actions of the European Union elites and European governments in combating the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

In Polish organizations one can recognize a lot of barriers in the mentoring implementation. According to the author, at the root of these barriers are hierarchies of values: social, national, organizational, and hierarchies of values represented by individual employees. The purpose of this article is to trace the sources of constraints in the mentoring implementation process. The analysis is carried out on several levels: from the broadest social perspective, through the national to the perspective of the organization. In the article, there are also presented actions that should be taken by Polish organizations to overcome barriers and constraints in the mentoring implementation process. ; W polskich organizacjach dostrzega się wiele barier we wdrażaniu mentoringu. Zdaniem autorki u podstaw tych barier leżą hierarchie wartości: społecznych, narodowych, organizacyjnych, a także indywidualne hierarchie wartości pracowników. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest prześledzenie źródeł ograniczeń we wdrażaniu mentoringu. Analiza prowadzona jest na kilku poziomach: od najszerszej perspektywy społecznej, przez narodową do perspektywy organizacyjnej. W artykule omówione są również działania, jakie powinny podjąć polskie organizacje na rzecz przełamywania barier i ograniczeń dla wprowadzania mentoringu.

One of the fundamental categories of general sociology concerns power. Regardless of differences in interpretation, power can be defined as the dependence between subordinator and subordinated. This relation is unidirectional. When discussing influence, this property is significant, as otherwise it could be reciprocal, or an influence could be exerted by many other entities that are not bound by the relationship of subordination. The nature of international relations is too specific to allow a simple transfer of power-related phenomena from the realm of domestic relations. One can indicate the presence of delegated power, resulting from the mutual assignment of subordination rights to international decision- making bodies. The processes of international power are divided into procedures of hard power, soft power and smart power, the latter signifying the manifestation of effective power, making use of the mechanisms of the former two. It is also important to take into account the specificity of the legitimization of international power and manifestations of accountability. Also not without significance is the capacity for the implementation of international power, equipped with the relevant enforcement instruments. ; One of the fundamental categories of general sociology concerns power. Regardless of differences in interpretation, power can be defined as the dependence between subordinator and subordinated. This relation is unidirectional. When discussing influence, this property is significant, as otherwise it could be reciprocal, or an influence could be exerted by many other entities that are not bound by the relationship of subordination. The nature of international relations is too specific to allow a simple transfer of power-related phenomena from the realm of domestic relations. One can indicate the presence of delegated power, resulting from the mutual assignment of subordination rights to international decision- making bodies. The processes of international power are divided into procedures of hard power, soft power and smart power, the latter signifying the manifestation of effective power, making use of the mechanisms of the former two. It is also important to take into account the specificity of the legitimization of international power and manifestations of accountability. Also not without significance is the capacity for the implementation of international power, equipped with the relevant enforcement instruments.

Due to amalgamation of Polish and EU systems, the shape of many public policies in the country is the consequence of decisions taken within the EU – but what is more important – with participation of Poles. Complexity of the challenges ahead demands making decisions that the society shall feel are acceptable, or even proceeded with their co-authorship. Relevantly high degree of cooperation, co-decision making and shared responsibility – between executive and legislative power and non-public entities, within political decision making, is important in order to get as properly stable as possible standpoint of Poland, and for efficient implementation. Because of that, the aim of this analysis is the search for the answer to the question whether within challenges that await the EU, we may find those, that will lay especially in the field of interest of Polish non-public entities. In addition – is it justified (and to what extend) to include in such cases those entities into processes of working out standpoints of Polish officials. With such a research objective a thesis is being advanced, that in Poland awareness of EU functioning mechanisms, but also the level of inclusion of non-public entities into political decision making, is little and in face of challenges awaiting the union it is necessary to raise it.

Due to amalgamation of Polish and EU systems, the shape of many public policies in the country is the consequence of decisions taken within the EU – but what is more important – with participation of Poles. Complexity of the challenges ahead demands making decisions that the society shall feel are acceptable, or even proceeded with their co-authorship. Relevantly high degree of cooperation, co-decision making and shared responsibility – between executive and legislative power and non-public entities, within political decision making, is important in order to get as properly stable as possible standpoint of Poland, and for efficient implementation. Because of that, the aim of this analysis is the search for the answer to the question whether within challenges that await the EU, we may find those, that will lay especially in the field of interest of Polish non-public entities. In addition – is it justified (and to what extend) to include in such cases those entities into processes of working out standpoints of Polish officials. With such a research objective a thesis is being advanced, that in Poland awareness of EU functioning mechanisms, but also the level of inclusion of non-public entities into political decision making, is little and in face of challenges awaiting the union it is necessary to raise it.