Die Konzeptualisierung der Graphomanie in der russischsprachigen postmodernen Literatur
In: Slavistische Beiträge 323
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In: Slavistische Beiträge 323
Introduction. The article is aimed at studying the negotiations on the Greek-Latin Church Union at the Church Councils in Constance (1414-1418) and Basel (1431-1449), which were the predecessors of the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438-1439) in this matter. Since they were generated by internal processes in the Latin West, they originally had not direct relationship to Byzantium. Methods and materials. The reason for the appeal of Councils to the problem of the Church Union should be sought in the field of Western international policy. It acted here as a tool for solving political problems by different actors. Analysis. At the Council of Constance the discussion of the Greek-Latin Union was initiated by Poland and Lithuania, who used it as a means of political propaganda against the Teutonic Order. The Council of Basel subsequently entered into direct negotiations with Byzantium. The reason for this was at first internecine strife in the Duchy of Lithuania, which interfered with Poland, the Teutonic Order and King Sigismund. The Council initiated consideration of the Church Union in order to support the Lithuanian Duke Švitrigaila in the struggle for the throne. As a result Byzantium was included also in the negotiations with the Council of Basel. But in 1435 Švitrigaila was defeated in the clash with Poland and its ally Duke Sigismund Kestutaitis. This defeat undermined the influence of Sigismund of Luxembourg at the Council of Basel. The King began his rapprochement with the Pope and Venice, and the Council of Basel was influenced by their political rivals, such as Milan and France. The theme of the Church Union at the Council became an instrument of struggle for political interests between these groups of political subjects. As a result, the struggle led to sharp disputes over the choice of the place for the Greek-Latin Council. The main options were Italy and French Avignon. The Byzantines chose the first option. But Byzantium was not the subject of the policy that created the situation of this choice. In the West this policy has led to significant changes. Results. The results of the negotiations on the Church Union at the Council of Basel displayed the fall of the role of imperial policy in the Latin West, which was represented by the King and Emperor Sigismund Luxembourg. The Empire was losing control of Italy. The result was the withdrawal of the papacy from its influence and the strengthening of Venice. Their union stood behind the Council of Ferrara-Florence. Outside Italy this Council has not received recognition. © 2020 Volgograd State University. All rights reserved.
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The author examines the legacy of two great Christian thinkers, the American Reinhold Niebuhr and the Italian Giorgio La Pira, both very influential during the Cold War. Niebuhr was a Protestant theologian and political adviser to the American establishment. The Mayor of Florence, La Pira, was a prominent Italian statesman and an eminent Catholic thinker. The author analyzes their views on international relations, in particularly on the western policy towards the Soviet Union, the use of nuclear weapons, the war in Vietnam and communism. The legacy of two thinkers is highly topical in front of the ethical dimension of choices needed in international politics today. ; Автор рассматривает идейное наследие двух выдающихся христианских мыслителей, американца Райнхольда Нибура и итальянца Джорджо Ла Пира. Оба мыслителя были чрезвычайно влиятельны в годы холодной войны. Нибур — протестантский теолог и политический советник членов истеблишмента США. Ла Пира — мэр Флоренции, известный государственный деятель и католический мыслитель. Автор анализирует их взгляд на международные отношения, прежде всего на такие аспекты, как политика Запада в отношении СССР, проблема использования ядерного оружия, война во Вьетнаме и коммунизм. Наследие обоих мыслителей чрезвычайно актуально и сегодня, когда встает вопрос об этическом измерении политики на международной арене.
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Ключевые слова: альянсы; баланс сил; всеобщая лига; Итальянская лига 1455 г.; Итальянские войны; Лоренцо де Медичи «Великолепный»; «частная лига». = Keywords: alliances; balance of power; general league; Italian league of 1455; Italian wars; Lorenzo de Medici «Magnificent»; «private league». Раздел «Международные отношения» ; В статье проводится анализ системы баланса сил, сложившейся на Апеннинском полуострове во второй половине XV в. Проведено сравнение роли Итальянской лиги и «частных лиг» в поддержании баланса сил и политического равновесия. Особое внимание уделено внешнеполитической деятельности Лоренцо де Медичи «Великолепного» в отстаивании интересов Флоренции в итальянской политической системе. Сделан вывод о месте и значении периода 1455—1494 гг. в последующем развитии дипломатии и теории международных отношений. = The article is dedicated to the analysis of the balance of power system, which was prevailing on the Apennine Peninsula in the second half of the 15th century. Roles of the Italian league and «private leagues» in maintenance of the balance of power and the political balance are compared. Special focus is made on the foreign policy of Lorenzo de Medici «Magnificent» in defending of Florence interests in the Italian political system. The conclusion is drawn on the place and significance of the period between 1455 and 1494 in the subsequent development of diplomacy and theory of international relations.
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This article considers the history of the campaign of Ottoman Sultan Murad II to Constantinople that failed in 1438. The study is based on the reports of Byzantine historians Georgios Sphrantzes and Sylvestre Syropulos and Castilian traveller Pero Tafur. Based on an analysis of the sources, the author describes the Byzantine-Ottoman relations in the 1430s and defines the role of the Turkish factor in the context of negotiations between Byzantium and the West about the unification of churches. The study demonstrates that the Ottomans planned an attack on Constantinople in 1438 in order to thwart the Uniate negotiations. The departure of Emperor John VIII Palaiologos to the Council of Ferrara-Florence in November 1437 displeased the sultan, who feared a political rapprochement of the Greeks with Western countries. According to sources, the campaign did not take place, because grand vizier Halil-Pasha convinced the Sultan to abandon this plan. The author of the article suggests that Murad II was stopped from aggression by the agreement with Byzantium, under which the Empire recognised itself as a vassal of the Ottoman sultan, the previous experience of military confrontation with the Greeks, as well as the difficult foreign policy situation in the Balkans. However, the threat of an Ottoman attack on the Byzantine capital influenced the negotiations of the Greek delegation with the papacy. The issue of sending ships to the aid of Constantinople by the papacy and Venice was being actively discussed throughout the year. Even when the issue of providing emergency assistance to the city lost its urgency, he did not leave the political agenda of negotiations at the Council. The Greeks continued to play the "Turkish card" in an effort to make the papacy move from promises to decisive action and demonstrate the political will to provide real military assistance to the Byzantine Empire. ; В статье рассматривается история несостоявшегося в 1438 г. похода османского султана Мурада II на Константинополь. Исследование опирается на сообщения византийских историков Георгия Сфрандзи и Сильвестра Сиропула и кастильского путешественника Перо Тафура. На основе анализа источников автор статьи характеризует византийско-османские отношения в 1430-е гг. и определяет роль турецкого фактора в контексте переговоров Византии с Западом об объединении церквей. Исследование показало, что османы планировали нападение в 1438 г. на Константинополь с целью сорвать эти униатские переговоры. Отъезд императора Иоанна VIII Палеолога на Ферраро-Флорентийский собор в ноябре 1437 г. вызвал недовольство султана, который опасался политического сближения греков с западными странами. Согласно источникам, поход не состоялся, так как великий визирь Халил-паша убедил султана отказаться от этого плана. Автор статьи предполагает, что Мурада II останавливали от агрессии заключенное с Византией соглашение, по которому империя признала себя вассалом османского султана, прежний опыт военного противостояния с греками, а также сложная внешнеполитическая ситуация на Балканах. Однако угроза османского нападения на византийскую столицу оказала влияние на переговоры греческой делегации с папством. Вопрос отправки папством и Венецией кораблей на помощь Константинополю активно обсуждался в течение года. Даже когда вопрос оказания экстренной помощи городу потерял свою остроту, он не ушел из политической повестки переговоров на соборе. Греки продолжали разыгрывать «турецкую карту», стремясь подвигнуть папство перейти от обещаний к решительным действиям и продемонстрировать политическую волю в вопросе оказания реальной военной помощи Византийской империи.
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