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Black Nationalism emerged in the early nineteenth century because African Americans felt a disconnect between American idealsliberty,independence, democracy-and the everyday realities-slavery, racism, oppression-that they faced because of their skin color.Early proponents of Black Nationalism were often free blacks struggling to make their way in a white-dominated society. Booker T.Washington and others promoted an economic version of Black Nationalism as a solution to African Americans' plight. Writer andactivist, Marcus Garvey, integrated these three themes-political, economic, and cultural nationalism-into one ideology that rejectedwhite values and embraced blackness on its own terms (Grant, 2008). Stokely Carmichael defined the concept of Black Power as "acall for black people in this country to unite, to recognize their heritage, to build a sense of community" (Hamilton,1967). This meant"Black leadership for black goals" (Franklin, 1988). The Nation of Islam, or Black Muslims appealed their followers "for separationfrom whites rather than integration and for violence in return for violence (Carson, 1996). The key speaker for this movement wasMalcolm X, known for his critique of the non-violent methods of civil rights movement. It is a widely known fact that MartinLuther King before his death, had been extensively criticized by more militant African Americans, arguing that whiteswould never act in response to their nonviolent actions. In 1966, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale organized the BlackPanther Party in Oakland, USA, inspired by Malcolm X's call to "freedom, by any means necessary".Keywords: Black Nationalism, Marcus Garvey, Black Panthers, Black Power, Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael

1921 წლის აპრილის დასაწყისში თბილისში გამომა­ვალ გაზეთ "სოციალისტ-ფედერალისტში" რუბრიკით "პოლიტიკური შენიშ­ვნები" გამოქვეყნდა კონსტანტინე გამსახურდიას წერილი: "ტრაგე­დიის მეორე ნაწილი", რომელიც რედაქციამ სადისკუსიოდ მიიჩნია. კონსტანტინე გამსახურდია შეეცადა რუსეთის წითელი არმიის მიერ საქართველოს ოკუპაცია მსოფლიო გეოპოლიტიკის კონტექსტში გაეაზრებინა. კონსტანტინე გამსახურდიას სტატია ასახავს საქართველოს გასაბჭოების პირველ დღეებში ქვეყანაში არსებულ განწყობას.

One of the central themes in the American history is the interaction between white and black cultures, both in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries of America. The religion perfectly reflects this interaction. As Campbell notes, African American religion has been extremely important both for American religious culture as a whole, and for the black community itself. When freedmen withdrew from white-dominated churches and formed their religious institutions, black churches, they quickly occupied a central position in African Americans' lives. They became the chief social and cultural institutions which blacks made and operated for themselves, and therefore were necessary in promoting a sense of communal purpose. They provided the organizational structure for most activities of the community: economic, political, and educational as well as religious. This article overviews the processes out of which the black church formed as an independent institution, that served as a unifying, powerful and stimulating instrument for the African American community's future advancements and struggle for equality.

We have been constantly reminded that, we are not going to succeed in achieving any kind of social change unless we build astrong civil society. Consequently, lots of NGOs in Georgia are founded with the intention to realize this dream. However, we havegot a long way ahead of us.After the election of Obama, when discussing the history of the United States of America, particularly while talking about the1950-1960s, Georgian people knowingly nod their heads, expressing their understanding that it was an era of intense struggle forfighting for the basic rights by Civil Rights Movement activists, - African Americans.In order to get full and concise perspective of the significance of the Civil Rights movement, we must provide some informationon the impact of the decision on other social movements. Undoubtedly, social movements play an influential role in culture, publicpolicy and mainstream politics: they respond to it and influence it.

In a world of finite public and private resources, it is very important to support effective management of public finances. Effective management focuses on the core areas of public financial management – public program and project appraisal. The essential theoretical foundations of CBA are: benefits are defined as increases in human wellbeing (utility) and costs are defined as reductions in human wellbeing. Cost-benefit analysis is an analytical tool that can be used to measure the economic and social impact of government action by reference to the "net social benefits" that action might be produced. As such, it can be a valuable aid to decision making. Its power as an analytical tool rests in two main features: 1) costs and benefits are each as far as possible appropriate expressed in terms of money and hence, are directly comparable with one another; 2) costs and benefits are valued in terms of the economy and society as a whole, so the perspective is "global".

Series Editor Introduction Jaan Valsiner -- Introduction -- Part I. Chapter 1. Considering semiotic dynamics of social representation -- Chapter 2. Overcoming fragmentation - Semiotic dynamics of the self's construction -- Chapter 3. Theory of Proculturation -- Chapter 4. Proculturation as a systemic phenomenological process -- Chapter 5. Considering methodological preconditions for proculturation studies -- Part II. Chapter 6. Historical roots of Georgianness -- Ethnic positioning through reintegrative proculturation -- Chapter 7. Constructing social representations as sign-complexes - from historical foundations towards contemporary Georgianness -- Chapter 8. The case of emigrant's proculturation - semiotic jump in the human development -- Chapter 9. Conclusions: Proculturation of the Self in context.

Конец ХХ в. останется в истории как время бурных этнополитических движений, сепаратизма государств, воссоединения разделенных народов и т.д.; время, которое способствовало возникновению сложных проблем во взаимоотношениях между советскими народами, обусловленные глубоким политическим кризисом и распадом СССР. Союзному государству стали пророчить распад на множество мелких самостоятельных государств, слабо развитых в экономическом отношении и находящихся в состоянии политической междоусобицы. Исключением не стала и Грузинская ССР. Представленная статья раскрывает процесс суверенизации грузинского общества, и показана роль З.К. Гамсахурдиа в становлении грузинской государственности в 90-е годы ХХ в. Приводятся конкретные и убедительные примеры крайних подходов в решении национального вопроса на примере южных осетин, и раскрываются убедительные факторы великодержавной политики официального Тбилиси во главе с бывшим диссидентом З.К. Гамсахурдиа. ; The end of the 20 th century will remain in the history as time of wild ethnopolitical movements, separatism of different states, the unity of parted peoples etc; the time, which promote the emergence of complex problems in the relationships between soviet peoples, led by deep political crisis and the break up of the USSR. The allied state was predicted a break up into a lot of small independent states, weakly-developed in economy. Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic did not become an exception. The represented article exposes the process of sovereignty of Georgian society and the role of Gamsakhurdia in the formation of Georgian government system in the 90 th of the 20 th century. There are concrete and convincing examples of extreme attitude in solving the national question, the example of it – is the South Ossetia, it exposes convincing factors of greatpowerful policy of official Tbilisi with former dissident Gamsakhurdia at the head.