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IntroductionThe development of medicine in the last three decades has brought not only new diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities, but also new thinking about health in its interdisciplinary understanding. It is also a period in which wide-ranging actions for public health were undertaken through decisions made by politicians, economists and health care representatives. Measures expressed mathematically are used in health measurements, especially those concerning the entire population. There are three groups of measures of the health condition of the population: positive, negative and the so-called synthetic measures of health condition which combine, apart from health measures, many other elements. Aim The aim of the work is to analyze the economics of health care.Material and method Review of the available literature on the subject.ResultsA different approach related to the economic efficiency of access to public goods is the concept of investment in human capital. Grossman developed the theoretical foundations for such an understanding of the choices related to health and its protection in the 1970s. Grossman's theory is treated as a model of human capital. An important element of Grossman's model is the distinction between health treated as a product, i.e. a basic good, which is a source of utility for people, and medical care treated as a factor in the production of health. In Grossman's model, people both demand and produce health. Health is treated as a good produced by humans through various means, such as diet, healthy eating, a healthy lifestyle, and medical care. The efficiency of health production depends on the knowledge and education of the society. Medical care is only one input into health production. According to the presented model, each person at birth has a specific health resource that exhibits capital characteristics. This health is amortized with age, but it can also be increased (accumulated) by investing in it, e.g. by doing sports, eating healthy and also by protecting health. Grossman's model takes into account two important elements. First, health care is only one of the determinants of health. Second, people do not demand health care for its own sake: the utility of health consumption is derived not from health care itself, but from the health improvement it causes. In this perspective, health care is an economic good, it is human capital and if so, health can also be considered capital. They are often regarded as a fundamental good, being one of the real reasons for patients' expectations of healthcare, for which other, mostly tangible, products and services, such as healthcare, are simply methods of obtaining it. ConclusionsThe contemporary concept of health should be perceived on many levels, including not only biomedical and environmental determinants, but also social and professional functions performed by individuals. As a result of such perception, the value of human life should increase by expanding the meaning of health to include the concept of the ability to lead a meaningful, creative and satisfying life. There is an interrelated relationship between the development of the concept of health and the definition of public health and health policies. The evolution of the concept of health, its extension beyond purely biological-medical meaning, has led to the concept of public health and the involvement of governments in health policy. Financial expenses related to the implementation of state burdens in the implementation of health policy currently exceed the capabilities of many governments. "

IntroductionThe development of medicine in the last three decades has brought not only new diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities, but also new thinking about health in its interdisciplinary understanding. It is also a period in which wide-ranging actions for public health were undertaken through decisions made by politicians, economists and health care representatives. Measures expressed mathematically are used in health measurements, especially those concerning the entire population. There are three groups of measures of the health condition of the population: positive, negative and the so-called synthetic measures of health condition which combine, apart from health measures, many other elements. Aim The aim of the work is to analyze the economics of health care.Material and method Review of the available literature on the subject.ResultsA different approach related to the economic efficiency of access to public goods is the concept of investment in human capital. Grossman developed the theoretical foundations for such an understanding of the choices related to health and its protection in the 1970s. Grossman's theory is treated as a model of human capital. An important element of Grossman's model is the distinction between health treated as a product, i.e. a basic good, which is a source of utility for people, and medical care treated as a factor in the production of health. In Grossman's model, people both demand and produce health. Health is treated as a good produced by humans through various means, such as diet, healthy eating, a healthy lifestyle, and medical care. The efficiency of health production depends on the knowledge and education of the society. Medical care is only one input into health production. According to the presented model, each person at birth has a specific health resource that exhibits capital characteristics. This health is amortized with age, but it can also be increased (accumulated) by investing in it, e.g. by doing sports, eating healthy and also by protecting health. ...

IntroductionThe development of medicine in the last three decades has brought not only new diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities, but also new thinking about health in its interdisciplinary understanding. It is also a period in which wide-ranging actions for public health were undertaken through decisions made by politicians, economists and health care representatives. Measures expressed mathematically are used in health measurements, especially those concerning the entire population. There are three groups of measures of the health condition of the population: positive, negative and the so-called synthetic measures of health condition which combine, apart from health measures, many other elements. Aim The aim of the work is to analyze the economics of health care.Material and method Review of the available literature on the subject.ResultsA different approach related to the economic efficiency of access to public goods is the concept of investment in human capital. Grossman developed the theoretical foundations for such an understanding of the choices related to health and its protection in the 1970s. Grossman's theory is treated as a model of human capital. An important element of Grossman's model is the distinction between health treated as a product, i.e. a basic good, which is a source of utility for people, and medical care treated as a factor in the production of health. In Grossman's model, people both demand and produce health. Health is treated as a good produced by humans through various means, such as diet, healthy eating, a healthy lifestyle, and medical care. The efficiency of health production depends on the knowledge and education of the society. Medical care is only one input into health production. According to the presented model, each person at birth has a specific health resource that exhibits capital characteristics. This health is amortized with age, but it can also be increased (accumulated) by investing in it, e.g. by doing sports, eating healthy and also by protecting health. ...

Imprint varies: Washington, D.C., summer 1979-; Baltimore, Md., Title from cover ; Vols. for fall 1979- called v. 1, no. 2, etc.; vols. for 1992-1995 issued with four thematic numbers and a fifth called: Medicare and Medicaid statistical supplement; fifth issue of 1992 also called: Annual supplement ; Mode of access: Internet. ; Vols. for summer 1979-Dec. 1981 issued by the Health Care Financing Administration's: Office of Research, Demonstrations, and Statistics; Mar. 1982-winter 1996 by: Office of Research and Demonstrations; spring 1997- by: Office of Strategic Planning; summer 2001- by: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of Strategic Planning; 200 - by: the Centers' Office of Research, Development, and Information ; Continued by: Medicare & medicaid research review, issued only online ; Supplemented by: Health care financing review. Annual supplement, 1988-1992; by: Health care financing review. Statistical supplement, 1995- ; Latest issue consulted: V. 25, no. 2 (winter 2003/2004) ; UCLA Library - CDL shared resource. ; UPD

OBJECTIVE: To disentangle the relationships among food insecurity, health care utilization, and health care expenditures. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING: We use national data on 13 465 adults (age ≥ 18) from the 2016 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), the first year of the food insecurity measures. STUDY DESIGN: We employ two‐stage empirical models (probit for any health care use/expenditure, ordinary least squares, and generalized linear models for amount of utilization/expenditure), controlling for demographics, health insurance, poverty status, chronic conditions, and other predictors. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Our results show that the likelihood of any health care expenditure (total, inpatient, emergency department, outpatient, and pharmaceutical) is higher for marginal, low, and very low food secure individuals. Relative to food secure households, very low food secure households are 5.1 percentage points (P < .001) more likely to have any health care expenditure, and have total health care expenditures that are 24.8 percent higher (P = .011). However, once we include chronic conditions in the models (ie, high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, emphysema, high cholesterol, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and asthma), these underlying health conditions mitigate the differences in expenditures by food insecurity status (only the likelihood of any having any health care expenditure for very low food secure households remains statistically significant). CONCLUSIONS: Policy makers and government agencies are focused on addressing deficiencies in social determinants of health and the resulting impacts on health status and health care utilization. Our results indicate that chronic conditions are strongly associated with food insecurity and higher health care spending. Efforts to alleviate food insecurity should consider the dual burden of chronic conditions. Finally, future research can address specific mechanisms underlying the relationships between food security, health, and health care.

Arguably, no other field of law in Virginia matches the complexity, magnitude, and universality of health care. It therefore comes as little surprise that Virginia's legislative and judicial branches of government devoted substantial attention to health care law issues in 2006 and 2007. Between April 2006 and April 2007 the time period covered by this article the Supreme Court of Virginia decided a large number of cases directly affecting health care law in the Commonwealth. The 2007 legislative session also addressed a host of health care issues and those with the most impact are summarized herein. These judicial and legislative developments have altered Virginia's health care law landscape in notable ways, and this article summarizes and analyzes those changes.

Brazil has great geopolitical importance because of its size, environmental resources, and potential economic power. The organisation of its health care system reflects the schisms within Brazilian society. High technology private care is available to the rich and inadequate public care to the poor. Limited financial resources have been overconcentrated on health care in the hospital sector and health professionals are generally inappropriately trained to meet the needs of the community. However, recent changes in the organisation of health care are taking power away from federal government to state and local authorities. This should help the process of reform, but many vested interests remain to be overcome. A link programme between Britain and Brazil focusing on primary care has resulted in exchange of ideas and staff between the two countries. If primary care in Brazil can be improved it could help to narrow the health divide between rich and poor.

Ręba Patrycja. Economics in health care. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2021;11(02):30-35. eISSN 2391-8306. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/JEHS.2021.11.02.003 https://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/JEHS/article/view/JEHS.2021.11.02.003 https://zenodo.org/record/4528955 The journal has had 5 points in Ministry of Science and Higher Education parametric evaluation. § 8. 2) and § 12. 1. 2) 22.02.2019. © The Authors 2021; This article is published with open access at Licensee Open Journal Systems of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Poland Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author (s) and source are credited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non commercial license Share alike. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Received: 28.01.2021. Revised: 05.02.2021. Accepted: 10.02.2021. Economics in health care Patrycja Ręba Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce Abstract Introduction The development of medicine in the last three decades has brought not only new diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities, but also new thinking about health in its interdisciplinary understanding. It is also a period in which wide-ranging actions for public health were undertaken through decisions made by politicians, economists and health care representatives. Measures expressed mathematically are used in health measurements, especially those concerning the entire population. There are three groups of measures of the health condition of the population: positive, negative and the so-called synthetic measures of ...

This entry has been realised in the framework of the H2020-MSCA-RISE-2018 project "LoGov - Local Government and the Changing Urban-Rural Interplay". LoGov aims to provide solutions for local governments that address the fundamental challenges resulting from urbanisation. To address this complex issue, 18 partners from 17 countries and six continents share their expertise and knowledge in the realms of public law, political science, and public administration. LoGov identifies, evaluates, compares, and shares innovative practices that cope with the impact of changing urban-rural relations in five major local government areas: (1) local responsibilities and public services, (2) local financial arrangements, (3) structure of local government, (4) intergovernmental relations of local governments, and (5) people's participation in local decision-making. The present entry addresses local responsibilities and public services in Germany. The entry forms part of the LoGov Report on Germany. To access the full version of the report on Germany, other practices regarding responsibilities and public services and to receive more information about the project, please visit: https://www.logov-rise.eu/. This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 823961.

In large systems, such as health care, reforms are underway constantly. The article presents a definition of health care reform and factors that influence its success. The factors being discussed range from knowledgeable personnel, the role of involvement of international experts and all stakeholders in the country, the importance of electoral mandate and governmental support, leadership and clear and transparent communication. The goals set need to be clear, and it is helpful to have good data and analytical support in the process. Despite all debates and experiences, it is impossible to clearly define the best approach to tackle health care reform due to a different configuration of governance structure, political will and state of the economy in a country.

26.5.2016 "Better Health, Improving Health Care†is a strategic briefing document prepared by the Department for the incoming Minister for Health, in advance of the publication of the Programme for Government. It sets out some strategic considerations to inform the task of developing a clear and coherent agenda for action to improve the health service. Better Health, Improving Health Care

Background: Medical waste is considered as a major public health hazard. In a developing country like Nepal, there is much concern about the management practice of medical waste. This study aimed to assess Health Care Waste Management practice among Health Care Institutions in Nepal.Methods: A cross sectional study was carried out between July 2012 to June 2013 in 62 different Health Care Institutions, selected from stratified proportionate random sampling technique from all administrative regions of Nepal. A structured questionnaire and observation checklist were used for data collection.Results: The waste generation rate is found significantly correlated with bed capacity, patient flow rate and annual budget spent in the hospital. It is found significantly higher in Teaching hospital than other Health Care Institutions of Nepal. An average of 3.3 kg/day/patient of medical waste (2.0 kg/day/patient non-hazardous and 1.0 kg/day/patient hazardous waste) was generated during the study period. Further, it was found that most of the Health care wastes were not disinfected before transportation to waste disposal sites. Very limited number of Health Care Institutions had conducted Environmental Assessment. Similarly, some of the Health Care Institutions had not followed Health care waste management guideline 2009 of Nepal Government.Conclusions: We found poor compliance of medical waste management practice as per existing legislation of Government of Nepal. Hence, additional effort is needed for improvement of Health care waste management practice at Health Care Institutions of Nepal.

In November 2010, the American Public Health Association endorsed the health care home model as an important way that primary care may contribute to meeting the public health goals of increasing access to care, reducing health disparities, and better integrating health care with public health systems. Here we summarize the elements of the health care home (also called the medical home) model, evidence for its clinical and public health efficacy, and its place within the context of health care reform legislation. The model also has limitations, especially with regard to its degree of involvement with the communities in which care is delivered. Several actions could be undertaken to further develop, implement, and sustain the health care home.

Crafting and stimulating service innovation is considered a main research priority and remains a challenge for service providers. One suggested component of stimulating service innovation is customer creativity. Customers who adapt, modify and transform services or products to better suit themselves are increasingly being recognized as a source of competitive value and innovation. It has been proposed that understanding and supporting the customer's value creating practices is the key to creating and sustaining value over time in health care. Health services directly address a customer's well-being and have a significant impact on his or her quality of life. In these types of services, the service outcome is highly dependent on the activities of the individual customer. Health care services often require customers to participate extensively, over long periods of time, with limited support and control. Health services also stretch far beyond the particular service setting into the customer's daily life. While research, policy, and legislation have all emphasized the active role of health care customers, such customers have traditionally had few opportunities to design their health care services. Nevertheless, health care customers solve health-related problems and engage in self-care and medical decision-making on a day-to-day basis, although this creativity is often unknown to the service provider. To understand how health care customers can enable service innovation, this thesis seeks to conceptualize and investigate the concept of customer creativity in health care. The thesis focuses on customer creativity, not only as an outcome, but also as a dynamic and contextualized process that can be enhanced. The thesis combines insights from health care research with service and innovation research to provide build a framework for health care customer creativity. Building on five papers, the research develops an understanding for health care customer creativity. The individual papers are based on systematic literature reviews as well as empirical data in the form of customers' ideas for service innovation collected through diaries. The results of the thesis suggest that despite the negative nature of the service, health care customers are creative. Given the opportunity, health care customers can provide creative ideas and solutions on a multitude of aspects, both within and outside the health care setting. This provides the potential to view the health care experience through the customers' eyes and take part in their creativity in spheres where the service providers have not traditionally had any access. This thesis contributes to the literature by providing a framework for health care customer creativity that recognizes the concept as a complex interplay of factors operating at the individual, contextual, and situational levels. The proposed framework specifies the health care specific factors upon which customer creativity depends, with the intention of positing potential research directions and developing an enriched theory of health care customer creativity.

What ethical considerations are made in decisions on distribution of scarce health care resources? Are the distributional decisions consciously based on explicit ethical principles, and if so, what principles? Both theoretical and political arguments on distribution of scarce medical resources frequently make simultaneous considerations of costs, probability of positive effects of medical treatment, and ethical values, possibly sacrificing explicit formulation of the ethical problem (or each element in general). To explicate the normative problem, it is convenient to distinguish between the three parts. A model of elements in the decision problem is presented. These elements are: Costs (C), probability of positive effect of treatment (P), and the (ethical) values related to the treatment of an individual (V). Stipulation of values on C, P, and V, respectively, is further discussed; ethical considerations (V) are the primary focus. Arguments for specific distributional principles are distinguished depending on whether the basis is P, V or C.