Obiettivo della tesi è indagare il concetto di stato di eccezione, in particolare nella sua declinazione internazionale e in quello che la Scuola di Copenaghen chiama "processo di securitizzazione". Si è indagata la relazione tra anarchia internazionale ed eccezione e l'idea che l'eccezione vada intesa come "processo correttivo" e non come un "evento", utilizzando alcune categorie di pensiero ebraico/kabbalistiche ed il "Costruttivismo evolutivo" di Emanuel Adler. Ci si è anche soffermati su come il neoliberismo "tecnologico" potrebbe controllare questo processo. La tesi è divisa in tre capitoli. Nel primo capitolo si cerca di delineare un'attinenza internazionale al concetto di stato di eccezione e si sono approfonditi autori chiave del pensiero sull'eccezione, come Carl Schmitt, Walter Benjamin e Giorgio Agamben. Nel secondo capitolo si è introdotto il concetto affine di "emergenza", per poi introdurre la Scuola di Copenaghen ed il suo concetto di securitizzazione, concludendo con un'indagine sulle origini schmittiane della stessa Scuola. Infine nel terzo capitolo si è introdotta la tematica dell'anarchia internazionale, spostando poi l'attenzione su un discorso di "anarchia umana", utile ad introdurre una discussione "ebraico-kabbalistica" dell'eccezione incentrata sulla categoria del "tikkun" (correzione) e del Costruttivismo di Adler, concludendo con un'analisi sul neoliberismo tecnologico. ; The aim of this thesis is to investigate the concept of the state of exception, in particular its international declination and what the Copenhagen School calls the "securitization process". The relationship between international anarchy and exception is investigated along with the idea that exception should be regarded as a "corrective process" rather than an "event", using some Jewish / Kabbalistic categories of thought and Emanuel Adler's "Evolutionary Constructivism". We also focus on how "technological neoliberalism" could control this process. The thesis is divided into three chapters. The first chapter seeks to outline the international relevance of the concept of the state of exception. For this, key authors on the subject have been explored, namely: Carl Schmitt, Walter Benjamin and Giorgio Agamben. In the second chapter the concept of "emergency" and Copenhagen School's concept of securitization were introduced, concluding with an investigation on the Schmittian origins of the aforementioned School. Finally, the third chapter focuses on the theme of international anarchy then shifting attention to a discourse of "human anarchy", useful for introducing a "Jewish-Kabbalistic" discussion of exception centered on the category of "tikkun" (correction) and Adler's Constructivism, concluding with an analysis of technological neoliberalism.
Over the last twenty years, the adjective 'humanitarian' has been the subject of unprecedented systematic linguistic abuse. It has been used in relation to the most diverse international political situations, the term has been used in order to define, and even more to justify, events which had little or nothing to do with the true meaning of the word. In this manner, politics has taken possession of a word and completely distorted its concept and its moral value, bending it in accordance with its own interests and shamelessly placing it next to its semantic opposite – war. With the end of 20th Century ideologies, the national State fell into crisis and as a consequence so did the organisms and institutions which it had founded. To the eyes of international public opinion, it is therefore difficult to justify a return to the use of arms in order to resolve disputes or in order to authorise intervention of a dubious nature beyond a nation's own borders. It is in precisely this context that man's fundamental rights are torn from their sacred throne in order to be subjected to forms of politico-economic logic which, owing to their assumed absolute nature, should not belong to them. The point, therefore, is to understand whether absolute rights which can be shared by everyone do, in fact, exist, and if so, what to do to protect them. In the meantime, the universalism of rights is used as if it were a skeleton key with which to penetrate public opinion (which is, at this point, global). At the same time, the international institutions which were created and appointed to control and safeguard the inviolable rights of man seem completely to have lost the authority which, however, they should hold. The finding of plausible justifications to delays, the absence of taking a stand and the making of unpopular choices therefore seems to have become the main occupation of an international political class which seems to be walking slowly whilst the rest of the world is running at speed. Are there, however, cases in which a war ...
Since the Nineties, the process of globalization has caused a sharp increase in the real and financial integration of the worldwide economy, reducing the obstacles to international trade and minimizing the cost of transaction. The entrance of foreign firms in the domestic market has deeply modified the competitive situation of Italian enterprises, which have been forced to change their strategies in order to cope with those of the new competitors. In this scenario, internationalization is no longer one of the different strategic options available for the firm, but it becomes a forced choice to maintain or acquire a competitive advantage sustainable over time. Internationalization strategies of SMEs, however, are hindered by the shortage of financial resources and entrepreneurial skills, therefore this kind of firms tends toward light forms of foreign expansion, like export and subcontracting. Despite this, many studies have demonstrated that the district localisation increases the firms' productivity and innovative capacity, so their competiveness both at a domestic and international level. The majority of these empirical contributions has focused mainly on the analysis of commercial flows, confirming that district enterprises reach a superior international performance compared to their external competitors. On the contrary, only few works have tried to evaluate the existence of a district effect on the firms' ability to invest abroad, but the obtained results are not straightforward. One of the reason of these conclusions is that the phenomena has been analysed without taking into account the differences existing between districts in terms of enterprises' dimension, diffusion of industrial groups and, above all, the sector of productive specialization, because the technological content of production could improve the innovativeness of district firms, allowing them to adopt advanced forms of internationalisation as foreign direct investments (FDI). The aim of the thesis is to further investigate the district effect on internationalisation, trough an econometric analysis of the international strategies carried out by firms localised in three different local system of production characterised by different technological specialization.
Tra le strategie di contrasto ai multiformi fenomeni criminosi afferenti al patrimonio culturale, riveste un ruolo cruciale l'affermarsi, a livello internazionale, del principio della responsabilità penale individuale. A fronte dell'attuale scenario internazionale, in cui i beni culturali sono stati sovente oggetto della furia iconoclasta di gruppi estremisti, la presente ricerca si propone di acclarare quale rilevanza penale sia riconosciuta dal diritto internazionale, in una prospettiva de iure condito, alla distruzione intenzionale del patrimonio culturale quand'anche questa sia svincolata dai conflitti armati. Onde risolvere tale queastio iuris, la ricerca adotta quel preciso ragionamento giuridico, sviluppato dai tribunali internazionali penali, al fine di affermare la responsabilità penale individuale per la violazione di norme internazionali. In specie l'indagine si occupa di verificare la sussistenza dei tre requisiti che, in ossequio alla giurisprudenza internazionale penale, sono necessari affinché un individuo possa ritenersi penalmente responsabile a livello internazionale per la distruzione di beni culturali: ovverosia, (a) l'esistenza di una norma internazionale che imponga un determinato obbligo di tutela dei beni culturali; (b) la produzione di serious conseguenze in seguito alla violazione della suddetta norma; (c) la generalizzata comminatoria della sanzione penale negli ordinamenti nazionali. Ciò posto, la prima parte del lavoro – avente perlopiù carattere introduttivo – è volta a fornire un inquadramento sistematico del corpus normativo posto a tutela del patrimonio culturale all'interno del sistema di garanzia dei diritti umani. In questo contesto, viene in evidenza come l'interesse del legislatore internazionale in materia si sia declinato in diversi approcci connotati, sia da una progressiva estensione della nozione di bene giuridico protetto, che dall'evoluzione della ratio di tutela perseguita. Al fine di dimostrare quanto detto, si analizza: in primo luogo il diritto internazionale umanitario, le cui disposizioni hanno riconosciuto un'immunità al patrimonio culturale nella sua consistenza materiale, salvaguardandolo dai danni, seppur collaterali, derivanti dalle ostilità armate; e in secondo luogo, la normativa di più ampio respiro che, abbracciando la più estesa nozione di cultural heritage, ha inteso la tutela del bene culturale quale componente essenziale del rispetto dei diritti umani. Una volta chiarita la genesi del sistema normativo, ci si sofferma funditus sulla evoluzione dello stesso, prestando particolare attenzione all'emersione di nuove finalità di tutela. Tramite l'analisi del law enforcement attuato dalla Corte di Strasburgo e dalla Corte interamericana dei diritti umani, in materia di diritti culturali dell'uomo, si provvede ad inquadrare gli obblighi internazionali a protezione dei beni culturali sotto la lente dei diritti umani. Passaggio, questo, che appare centrale onde comprendere la reale portata del divieto di distruggere il patrimonio culturale in qualsivoglia contesto, e non solo in quello bellico. Esaurita la trattazione concernente le norme primarie, ed individuata dunque la sussistenza di specifici obblighi internazionali, l'indagine si concentra poi sulle conseguenze scaturenti, sul piano secondario, in caso di violazioni. Avendo riguardo alle reazioni poste in essere nella Comunità internazionale, essenzialmente realizzate tramite forme istituzionalizzate, quali quelle dell'UNESCO e delle Nazioni Unite, ci si occupa di appurare il grado di gravità riconosciuto alla rottura della legalità in materia. Sicché, guardando al dato fattuale, cioè all'azione solidale ed istituzionale attuata dagli omnes in risposta alla distruzione iconoclasta, si ricostruisce la natura erga omnes del divieto di distruggere il patrimonio culturale, e più in generale degli obblighi protettivi a questo relativi. Acclarato che la distruzione deliberata del patrimonio culturale integra una violazione grave del diritto internazionale, l'ultima parte dell'indagine – che rappresenta forse quella più innovativa – è volta ad accertarne la rilevanza penale nell'ambito dei sistemi giuridici nazionali. Infine, seguendo un ragionamento induttivo, che muove quindi dalle esperienze nazionali, e che si colloca comunque in una prospettiva de iure condito, potrà evincersi l'esistenza o meno di un principio generale, comune agli ordinamenti interni, volto a responsabilizzare penalmente l'individuo per la distruzione deliberata del patrimonio culturale in tempo di pace. ; The principle of individual criminal responsibility plays a crucial role among all the different strategies to face the manifold criminal phenomena which currently undermine cultural heritage. Against the recent historical background, where the cultural heritage has been intentionally injured because of iconoclastic waves, the present research pursues a main objective, which can be summarized into the following query: is it possible to affirm the consolidation of the principle of the individual criminal responsibility vis-à-vis the intentional destruction of cultural property committed during peace time? In order to solve this question, the research follows the reasoning adopted by international criminal courts in order to affirm the principle of individual criminal responsibility for violations of international law. In particular the present work, which consists of two parts, aims to ascertain the fulfillment of the three criteria enunciated by the international criminal courts: (a) the existence of rules of international law laying down a specific obligation to protect cultural property; (b) the production of serious consequences in case of violation of such rules; (c) the generalized criminalization, into national legal systems, of a such offence. Consequently, the first part of the work – of an introductive character – is addressed to a systematic overview of the relevant legal framework, whose evolution highlights how the international tools have been characterized by either a progressive extension of cultural good notion, or an evolution of the pursued ratio legis. Therefore, the analysis takes moves from the ius in bello norms which have granted an immunity to cultural property, based on its civilian character and aiming to prevent those damages which are typically caused by armed conflicts. Finally, and especially, it considers those norms of a wider scope which – embracing the broader notion of cultural heritage – have interpreted the cultural property protection as a constituent part of the human rights protection system. Thus, addressing the attention on the most recent achievements of this evolutional process, the research turns to those legal instruments – such as Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and Article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) – whereby the international obligations related to cultural property could be interpreted as tools to defend a humankind interest, namely the peaceful enjoyment of the cultural rights: i.e. the right to take part to cultural life, as well as the right to have a cultural identity. However, the pivot of the present research is its second part, which is focused on the consequences deriving from the violations of the relevant international rules protecting cultural property and, consequently, from the cultural rights infringements. Indeed, the second part intends to establish whether the Rome Statute provisions has been overtaken by new rules of customary international law, according to which the intentional destruction of cultural heritage constitutes, besides a war crime, even a crime against humanity. To this scope, the analysis deals with the reactions that international actors have implemented for facing the iconoclasm plague. In order to ascertain the criminalization degree, the work firstly focuses on the pertinent case-law of the international criminal tribunals: indeed it is known that the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia before, and the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia then, have already condemned the intentional attacks directed against cultural sites as crimes against humanity sub specie of persecution. Ultimately, the object of the last part is represented by the national legal systems, whereby it is given to retrace the criminal relevance degree which is recognized to the destruction of cultural heritage.
The Ph.D. project aimed to analyze the right to privacy in light of the recent restrictions and derogations put in place in international and European law, particularly in response to the terrorist attacks that occurred on 11th September, 2001. In this context, tensions peaked in 2013 when former NSA employee, Edward Snowden, denounced mass surveillance programs put in place by the American government. These programs, made also possible by the collaboration of the most important American internet service providers, aimed to monitor American citizens and not. Undeniably, in 2013 the international community gained greater awareness of the potential risks connected to the indiscriminate collection of personal information by the National Security and law enforcement authorities. In fact, there are still many States that consider mass surveillance an effective tool in protecting national security and preventing terrorist attacks. However, these measures simultaneously contain considerable risks for citizens' rights, due to either the frequent lack of adequate jurisdictional control at a national level or the indiscriminate nature of the data collected. Despite the importance of the right to privacy, there is still a lack of adequate legislation in this matter. This is especially evident at the international level. Notably, Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights both fail to explicitly provide for the protection of personal data. Furthermore, there is no mention of this right in article 8 ECHR. The legal deficiencies, mainly caused by the lack of adequate technical knowledge on the matter during the period that these conventions were drafted and ratified, have been partially compensated for by the development in case-law put in place by the European Court of Human Rights, beginning with the Klass and others v. Germany sentence until the more recent Big Brother Watch and others v. United Kingdom. In particular, according to the judges of Strasbourg, any limitation must be provided for by law, pursuing a legitimate aim, is necessary in a democratic society and respectful of the principle of proportionality. From a legislative point of view, the situation seems to be consistently more favorable in the European context where the right to privacy has become a fundamental right, according to Article 8 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union and Article 16 TFEU. In the final part of the project have been also identified and analyzed other significant unresolved issues in the context of the right to privacy, regarding in particular corporate responsibility for illegitimate transmission of personal data to National Security and law enforcement authorities, which violates international standards protecting human rights, and possible extraterritorial exercise of jurisdiction by monitoring bodies.
The thesis analyses the legal opinions delivered by the Consiglio del contenzioso diplomatico of the Italian ministry of foreign affairs concerning the treatment of Italian nationals living abroad. As a premise, it recollects the different decrees and other pieces of legislation concerning the institution, functioning, assignments of the Consiglio. Having said that, the thesis focus on the opinions delivered in relation with actual disputes over the violation of the international law norms providing protection to foreign national residing abroad (ie. aliens) against their State of residence. That protection was implemented through the intervention of the State of nationality, according to the Vattelian paradigm which gives rise to the doctrine of diplomatic protection. In some cases, the claim was preliminary barred on account of the (purported) loss of Italian citizenship by the part of the emigrants. Accordingly, these disputes turn into disputes of nationality: with both States considering an individual as their subject. On the other hand, when nationality is not an issue, the disputes focus on the existence (or the non-existence) of customary international law norms on the treatment of aliens, their scope and the process through which their violation may be acknowledged and sanctioned.
International audience ; Electronic democracy represents a new communication space consisting of a set of tools and tecnological models aimed at increasing citizens participation in the decision making moments of public action. It supports participation in more properly political democratic processes and thedetermination of public choices.
Questo lavoro si propone di portare l'attenzione sul caso studio di un paesaggio culturale antico segnato dal fenomeno coloniale, in cui è avvenuta l'interazione tra due grandi e diverse componenti etniche. Ad essere preso in esame è il territorio degli Enotri, in gran parte coincidente con le aree di influenza delle colonie achee di Crotone, Sibari e Metaponto e della ionica Siris, per comprendere entro quali dinamiche si è verificato il contatto tra gli indigeni e i Greci al momento delle fondazioni. L?obiettivo del lavoro è quello di tracciare la natura e le caratteristiche del popolamento enotrio e le trasformazioni avvenute dopo le fondazioni greche. In antitesi alle tendenze primitiviste e diffusioniste che si appiattiscono nella considerazione esclusiva dell'elemento coloniale, questa ricerca ha tentato di riconoscere il ruolo, troppo spesso marginalizzato, svolto dagli indigeni nella definizione politico-culturale della Magna Grecia
