Suchergebnisse

THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF HEALTH PLANNING MUST BE IMPROVED BEFORE NEEDED ADVANCES CAN OCCUR IN HEALTH PLANNING PRACTICE. 4 MAJOR PLANNING STRATEGIES CAN BE DEFINED: (1) RATIONAL, INVOLVING A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN; (2) INCREMENTAL, INVOLVING TRIAL-&-ERROR CHANGES; (3) MIXED SCANNING, INTEGRATING FEATURES OF THE 1ST 2 OF DIFFERENT LEVELS, & (4) RADICAL, INVOLVING OUTRIGHT REMOVAL OF PRESENT AGENCIES CONTROLLING MEDICAL CARE. ALL ARE POTENTIALLY USEFUL IN PLANNING, & MIGHT ALL BE APPLIED TO VARIOUS ASPECTS OF HEALTH CARE. 1 TABLE. MODIFIED HA.

Educ & specialized training represent an important means of diffusing skills, technology & knowledge to countries seeking or undergoing modernization. Those who take training in advanced industr countries can serve as change agents, effecting a transfer of technology or modernizing norms & values within their occup'al settings. Educ'al programs conducted as a form of foreign aid by many nations & internat'l agencies have rarely produced systematic knowledge as to the varied consequences of purposive, focused study abroad. Data from interview surveys conducted in 29 countries (in 1960-63) with over 20,000 former participants in a US-sponsored program are analyzed from the standpoint of the process of technological transfer, primarily at the individual level. After a brief review of the nature of the program & its participants, findings are discussed that bear on the conditions for successful transfer. Among these are factors related to processes of program implementation; to instit'al arrangements in the former trainees' work environments; & to a few special conditions such as occup'al mobility & the passage of time. 2 general patterns emerging from more detailed findings are the roles of professionalization & instit'al support. The more professional in character was the training (or the trainees), the more extensive was the transfer of skills or techniques. Further, the better-instituted the program (in terms of its planning, conduct & follow-up), the more extensive the use of training. These findings suggest that greater attention must be paid to the specific instit'al contexts of strategic high-level occup's in developing countries in programs of planned technological change. AA.

The concept that a model of the methodology of technology transfer and utilization has two major subdivisions, formal vs informal communications, is discussed briefly. Some literature support for the informal communications aspect of the model of the methodology of technology transfer and utilization are presented. An in depth analysis is made of one of the informal elements of the model, 'linker-stabilizer behavior.' The analysis is based on two studies of technically trained personnel; one, Naval Officers, and the Second, Government Service Employees. The thrust of the analysis and the conclusion seem to indicate strongly that the commonality of the technical training is more dominant than the decision to be a Naval Officer or a Government Service Employee. This conclusion thus supports the belief that the distribution of linker-stabilizer behavior characteristics has a general base in terms of technically trained personnel and is not unique to a select population ; Prepared for: Naval Facilities Engineering Command Alexandria, Virginia ; http://archive.org/details/technologytransf00joll

The traditional theory of foreign investment says that foreign
investors, which usually are the multinational corporations, bring to
underdeveloped countries not only foreign equity and loan capital most
often in foreign exchange but also advanced technology and managerial
experience. Most underdeve¬loped countries lack qualified technical
skills and managerial personnel; local entrepreneurs are usually not
adequately trained to meet the problems involved in rapid technological
change. Multinational corporations bring with them sophisticated
technical know-how, modern management and marketing techni¬ques and
manufacturing experience. They also give training to local staff in both
the technical and managerial fields. Some patented processes and designs
necessary to successful production are sometimes made available under
licence without the accompanying foreign loan/equity capital; but
management, marketing and organizational skills, and some technical
know-how complementary to the licensed technology is usually not
transferred by multinational firms without having equity participa¬tion
[1], Often the knowledge covered by licence alone is not sufficient; the
complementary know-how and skills are required to apply the patented
know¬ledge to actual production. Particularly in underdeveloped
countries where local technical skills are scarce and technical
personnel is limited, the comple¬mentary know-how and skill is very
important.

The concern is with the "ordering" of experience into a conceptual framework related to the soc position of the O & the problems this causes in imparting knowledge to ghetto residents. Data are based on a res projec aiming to provide exploratory generalizations re the behavior of a purpose sample of community decision org's, to test a number of hyp's re their interorg'al behavior, & to explore the nature of the interorg'al field in which this interaction occurs. 2 paradigms for diagnosing a situation of poverty are discerned: (1) the approach based on "individual deficiency," & (2) the "dysfunctional soc structure" approach. The intervention strategy associated with each is discussed. Within paradigm (1) & its attendant service strategy, the professional "problems" lie in the structure of service delivery systems & "progress" lies in their improvement. The Model Cities program represented an intervention strategy to solve these problems as a means of more effectively attacking poverty. It was based on the belief-value system of the larger Amer society, which is analyzed in terms of the principles of democratic pluralism, the importance of sci'fic knowledge in solving problems, & the use of inducements. Technical & admin'ive rationales are delineated & the problem of legitimation & power is dealt with. The function of soc res & evaluation in relation to paradigm (1) is considered. It is postulated that purposive change strategies such as the anti-poverty program & the Model Cities program have little effect on soc conditions as long as they do not help to create alternative instit'ized thought structures based on diff diagnostic paradigms containing components which are as integrally supportive of the alternative paradigm as are the components of paradigm (1). Key variables are diff'ly defined within alternative paradigms. It is shown how the Model Cities program has been modeled to fit the components of the prevalent instit'ized thought structure, rather than to create structural change. Paradigm (2) is also deficient, poses problems of transfer of power & challenges the very concept of professionalism. Analysis of the instit'ized thought structure from a SofK viewpoint is urged. M. Maxfield.

The travelling S is a catalyst of culture change especially insofar as the S has an influence over those who stay at home. To assess this influence is difficult, & anthrop'ts have little precise knowledge of the detailed workings of acculturation. There exist 2 complementary approaches to the assessment of the role of foreign study in culture change: the historical, which sacrifices the exactitude of causal inference for broad perspective, & the analytical, which sacrifices broad understanding for a rigorous analysis of particular or detailed aspects of the total cultural impact. Cross-cultural educ (CCE) is an old phenomenon. The U of Nalanda, India, which flourished from the 5th to the 12th cent's, was more successful in some aspects of CCE than it was in intracultural educ, for example, in the dissemination of Buddhist doctrines. Other centers of CCE were China & Rome. More recently, educ'al exchange has come to emphasize the transfer of practical technological information rather than the pursuit of learning & culture for their own sake. An analytical approach to CCE might include an abstract analysis of each of the factors linking a sojourner's experiences of culture contact with cultural effects. Factor (1) is the acquisition of academic knowledge as well as the more informal learning characterized by changes in att's, values, & behavior patterns. Factor (2) is the persistence & transfer of the learning obtained by the sojourner. (3) is the degree to which a sojourner occupies a position in his home-country which will enable him to exert an impact upon it. (4) is the degree to which the state of affairs--as the prevalent att's toward change & the rational orientations toward other nations--in the home-country is compatible with the new ideas & communications of the sojourner. Factor (5) is the degree to which a program of educ'al exchange may lead to the establishment of relatively enduring collaboration between individuals or groups of the respective nations. It is possible that as a result of various phenomena, the exchange of persons being one, a common strand of cosmopolitanism may emerge in the world. B. J. Keeley.

SummaryWe have started by asking the question: why are there international income inequalities? We have ascribed them to differences in applied productive knowledge. This raised the question: why can productive knowledge be communicated and diffused within an advanced nation but not between nations or within underdeveloped nations? What are the obstacles to the international diffusion of benefits?We have found these in two areas: obstacles to communication and absence of suitable technologies. The obstacles to communication can again be divided into those due to costs of transfer and those due to intentional restrictions or the exercise of monopoly power. But even perfect communication would not meet the need for quite different technologies from those developed in high‐income countries.Measures that reduce the Communications Gap might make the Suitability Gap wider and vice versa, but a set of integrated actions attacking both gaps has a chance of success. Technical knowledge cannot be marketed like other products or factors because it possesses peculiar features: (i) indivisibility, (ii) inappropriatability, (iii) embodiment in other factors, (iv) uncertainty and (v) impossibility to know its full value until bought. Policies for closing the two gaps are interdependent, so that the pursuit of any one in isolation might make matters worse. What is needed is a set of integrated actions, attacking both the Communications Gap and the Suitability Gap. Transfer must be supplemented by indigenous capability; adaptation by invention and innovation.