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The evolution of comparative approaches to studying politics is investigated. An overview of comparative political perspectives in the Western world circa the early 20th century is provided. Three events that significantly altered existing comparative political approaches are identified, eg, the downfall of the Weimar Republic. In addition, the growth of concern within academic communities over political developments in certain parts of the world, eg, Latin America, is also credited with the emergence of a new comparative politics. After reviewing the new comparative approaches to exploring politics, various responses to these novel perspectives are discussed, eg, the difficulty some scholars experienced in categorizing communist systems. The increase in attention directed toward European politics during the 1970s & 1980s & the use of multiple research strategies for analyzing democratic political systems are also covered. Several additional factors that altered comparative political approaches since the 1980s are noted, eg, the rise of the welfare state. It is concluded that comparative approaches must address multiple questions that problematize the present-day world, eg, the creation of new democratic states. J. W. Parker

The introduction of citizenship of the European Union in 1992 is mirrored by a famous grant of 'universal' citizenship by the Roman Emperor Caracalla in 212 AD. The similarity even extends to the 1997 clarification that European citizenship is complementary to national citizenship, an idea that is also found in earlier grants of Roman citizenship. Caracalla's grant is often held to cover (nearly) all inhabitants of the Roman world with the exception of slaves. However, there are reasons to believe it merely gave limited citizenship to a certain class of freedmen, the Junian Latins, who remained in a state of dependency vis-à-vis their former masters. In previous grants of citizenship or of other honorifics, Roman Emperors had been careful to safeguard existing rights and local identities, and it is quite likely that Caracalla's chancery followed legal precedent in drafting the 'universal' grant. This paper argues that the Constitutio Antoniniana could only succeed as an integrative force, uniting the Roman world under a common citizenship, by not upsetting the framework of Roman society.

ABSTRACTMany parts of the world are threatened with environmental damage and degradation, affecting both the natural resources and the economy of the area. This article analyses the factors affecting the likelihood of different environmental policy reforms in Latin America, with particular emphasis on: the strengths and weaknesses of different groups which promote such reforms; the degree to which the reforms are compatible with the region's current economic policies; and how the type of political regime affects these issues. It reaches the conclusion that, although there has been progress in recent years, the possibility of carrying out far‐reaching reforms which could substantially reduce pollution and resource depletion has been limited by: 1) the difficulties involved in linking environmental issues with concerns for social justice; 2) economic policies which promote the exploitation of natural resources and labour and weaken the public sector; and 3) the great influence over regional governments of groups with vested interests in continuing environmentally destructive activities.

UIDB/04209/2020 UIDP/04209/2020 ; Over the last decades, technological innovation became the new mantra in the Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) policy arena of the most different countries, including the world peripheries. By adopting a historical and global perspective, we identify in this article a scope of isomorphic pressures in the core elements of the policy process, which became increasingly evident, aligned with neoliberalism and the ideals of rationalization and bureaucratization: discursive and argumentative rationalities, primary goals definition, policy mechanisms, and legislation – all elements central to policy formulation and very similar across countries, independently of some degree of variation within national contexts. Therefore, one can observe that the reforms held in the STI policy arena of different Latin America and Iberian countries, to create an 'innovation culture' of entrepreneurship, are based on very similar discourses and incentives. In this piece, we conduct a conceptual discussion on the politics of STI given the realities and historical backgrounds of some peripheral countries – mainly Latin American ones, highlighting the relations between interests and their respective agency within STI's complex policy process. ; publishersversion ; published