Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kidadhala-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 522 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 89 per cent is covered by soils, 150 cm).  About 7 per cent of the area is having sandy soils, 81 per cent loamy soils and 1 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 7 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m).  An area of about 0.75%) in 49 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) in 39 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 21 per cent of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 49 per cent area of the soils  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 75 per cent of the area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 12(2) 99 (19) Pomegranate 4(<1) 364(70) Maize 4(<1) 121(23) Guava 2(<1) 364(70) Bajra 4(<1) 349(67) Jackfruit 4(1) 363(70) Redgram 4(<1) 101(19) Jamun 2(<1) 365(70) Bengal gram 7(1) 103 (20) Musambi 4(<1) 364 (70) Groundnut 2(<1) 386 (74) Lime 4(<1) 370 (71) Sunflower 4(<1) 108(21) Cashew - 373(71) Cotton 9 (2) 101(20) Custard apple 56 (11) 378(73) Chilli 4(<1) 99(19) Amla 49(9) 385(74) Tomato 4(<1) 65(12) Tamarind 2(<1) 62 (12) Drumstick 4(<1) 165(31) Marigold 4(<1) 107 (20) Mulberry 4(<1) 425(81) Chrysanthemum 4(<1) 107(20) Mango 2(<1) 62(11) Jasmine 4(<1) 107(20) Sapota 4(<1) 357(68) Crossandra 4(<1) 99(19) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kidadhala-1 is located at North latitude 150 21' 47.551" and 150 20' 28.719" and East longitude 760 13' 39.692'' and 760 11' 46.69" covering an area of about 521.98 ha coming under under Kidadhala, Koppala and Basapura Villages of Koppala taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kidadhala-1 micro watersheds of Bhagyanagar subwatershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 12 (34.29 %) were marginal, 7 (20.00%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were Semi medium and 5 (14.29 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 91 (50.28%) men and 89 (49.17 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (39.78%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.17 per cent illiterates, 1.10 percent were functional literates, 45.30 per cent pre university education and 1.66 per cent attained graduation.  About, 28.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 68.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 9.94 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 88.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 85.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 22.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 22.86 per cent possess local cow and 11.43 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 6.40 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.97.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 81.64 per cent (77.81 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 16.14 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 9.00 live bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 31.42 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Cotton, Red gram and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 77.86 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Cotton, Red gram and Sunflower was Rs.45125.41, 27940.51, 38832.25, 29911.57 and 37509.54 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.10, 1: 1.50, 1: 2.60, 1: 0.90 and 1:0.80 respectively.  Further, 31.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 42.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 90614.57 in micro-watershed, of which Rs. 65941.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 19 horticulture trees and 103 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3142.86 for land development and Rs. 1200.00 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 14.29 per cent depends on own funds and 45.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 25.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 111.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (57.14%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 57.14 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.29 per cent of the households and 5.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 77.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 88.57 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 0.00 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (80.00%) and oilseeds (5.71%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (31.43%) wild animal menace on farm field (37.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (57.14%), high rate of interest on credit (42.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (54.29%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (5.71%), Less rainfall (22.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (22.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Haligeri-5 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 614 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soil and 1 per cent by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils. Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 76 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 4 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 95 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 17 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 82 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 76 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 23 per cent very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 7 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (<4.5ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 255(41) Sapota - - Maize - 255 (41) Pomegranate - 255(41) Bajra - 255(41) Guava - - Redgram - 255(41) Jackfruit - - Bengal gram - 255(41) Jamun - - Groundnut - - Musambi - 255(41) Sunflower - 255(41) Lime - 255(41) Cotton - 255(41) Cashew - - Chilli - 255(41) Custard apple - 255(41) Tomato - - Amla - - Brinjal - - Tamarind - - Onion - - Marigold - 255(41) Bhendi - 255(41) Chrysanthemum - 255 (41) Drumstick - - Jasmine - - Mulberry - - Crossandra - - Mango - - - - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Haligeri-5 is located at North latitude 150 25' 26.363" and 150 23' 45.883" and East longitude 760 5' 15.039'' and 760 3' 17.019" covering an area of about 643.51 ha coming under Haligeri, Veerapura and Bhanapur villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Haligeri-5 micro watersheds of Haligeri sub-watershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Haligeri-5 micro-watershed among households surveyed 14 (40.00%) were marginal, 9 (25.71%) were small and 7 (20.00 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 83 (57.64%) men and 61 (42.36 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4, marginal farmers 4.6, small farmers were 3.1 and semi medium farmers were 4.6.  Majority of the respondents (34.72%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 20.83 per cent illiterates, 77.09 per cent pre university education and 6.94 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 55.56 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 94.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 100.00 per cent possess TV, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 34.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 14.29 per cent possess tractor, 8.57 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.45, women available in the micro watershed was 1.19, hired labour (men) available was 11.35 and hired labour (women) available was 12.  Further, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 99.05 per cent (42.70 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 0.95 per cent area is irrigated land.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 2.86 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Green gram, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Sunflower and cropping intensity was recorded as 85.54 per cent.  Out of the sample households 31.43 percent possessed bank account.  About 31.43 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Green gram, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Sunflower was Rs.23599.76 , 20722.41, 28321.72, 20402.46 and 12440.42 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.50, 1: 1.80, 1: 3.80, 1: 0.90 and 1:2.40 respectively.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 90230.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 73594.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 13 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2685.71 for land development. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 51.43 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (82.86%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.14 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 31.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (48.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (14.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), high rate of interest on credit (71.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (51.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (65.71%), inadequate extension services (2.86%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

In reference to the legal state in the Thai legal system, most people understand the minor principles of the legal state form, which are the principles that can be explained and understood easily and the results can be seen clearly, especially in the legitimacy of administrative acts. Therefore, there is no awareness of justice, which is the fundamental value of Thai law. The legitimacy of administrative acts requires the administration to adhere to the constitution and legislative laws in enforcement of the laws. If it appears that the administrative acts are illegitimate, the administrative court, as the court of justice, will revoke those acts as if they had never been set in the legal system, this will affect people's trust as they are unaware as to whether the administrative acts that appoint their lives are legitimate or not. Regarding the revocation of administrative orders by the administrative court as if those orders had never existed, the common individual surely cannot be expected to comprehend the security of their juristic position. Therefore, the legal state does not require a revocation of the government's acts to terminate its legal results merely because those acts are illegitimate, but there should be considerations and realizations regarding the "The Principle of the Protection of Legitimate Expectation," which is a minor principle in the legal state's content that focuses on supporting and protecting legitimate expectations of the juristic position of an individual and maintaining justice, which is the fundamental value of Thai law.

The legislator considers the term "educational system" as one of the basic education laws. The legal term (included in the Education Law Act) "the educational system covers" lists its elements. They include, for example, various types of schools, kindergartens, alternative forms of preschool education, children's holiday homes, centers of education. This system realizes recognized values, principles, as well as certain postulates and guidelines contained in the law. In essence, it is a collection of organizational units, whose activity is regulated by the Education Law Act. The majority of these activities are addressed to pupils. Some elements are also addressed to teachers and serve to develop them. Colleges of Social Service Workers do not fit in with the rest of the educational system.

This volume of Studies in Law, Politics, and Society contains an international and interdisciplinary array of legal scholarship. Presenting diverse theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches, this work illuminates the laws response to its social context as well as the way law shapes that context. It shows how legal scholars contribute to public debate about contemporary issues as well as how they articulate the nature of rights and the limits of law.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bandehalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 1015 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 883 ha (87%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 58 ha (6%) by rock outcrops and about 73 ha (7%) by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 22 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 87 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 38 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), 26 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and about 14 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 26 per cent area of the microwatershed is medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 23 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%), about 68 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 17 per cent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 11 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is high (>20 ppm) in an area of about 2 per cent, about 45 per cent is medium (10-20 ppm) and about 40 per cent is low (1.0 ppm) in about 4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  An area of about 83 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 286(28) 305(37) Guava - 261(26) Maize 252(25) 410(40) Sapota - 261(26) Bajra 252(25) 410(40) Pomegranate - 395(39) Groundnut - 335(33) Musambi 35(3) 360(35) Sunflower 35(3) 360(35) Lime 35(3) 360(35) Redgram - 588(57) Amla 252(25) 118(12) Bengal gram 35(3) 99(10) Cashew - - Cotton 35(3) 359(35) Jackfruit - 261(26) Chilli 126(12) 342(34) Jamun - 35(3) Tomato 126(12) 208(20) Custard apple 35(3) 433(43) Brinjal 126(12) 208(20) Tamarind - 35(3) Onion 126(12) 208(20) Mulberry - 261(26) Bhendi 126(12) 342(34) Marigold 126(12) 342(34) Drumstick - 296(29) Chrysanthemum 126(12) 342(34) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bandehalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 50' 6.06" and 160 46' 4.614" and East longitude 770 8' 20.378'' and 770 6' 35.654" covering an area of about 1014.53 ha coming under Bheemanagara, Chamanahalli. Yadhagiri. B and Horunacha villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Bandehalli-2 micro watersheds of Yadgiri subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Bandehalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 2 (5.71%) were marginal, 23 (65.71%) were small and 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (56.21%) men and 67 (43.79 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.2, marginal farmers were 4, small farmers were 4.7 and semi medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (33.33%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 40.52 per cent illiterates, 49.02 per cent pre university education and 7.84 per cent attained graduation.  About, 85.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 56.86 per cent of the household members.  In the study area and 94.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 54.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 22.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, women available in the micro watershed was 1.48, hired labour (men) available was 14.5 and hired labour (women) available was 10.83.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (43.62 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum, Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. 2  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Sorghum and Groundnut was Rs.24826.29, 23996.08, 17039.52 and 43988.83 and with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.80, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.90 and 1: 0.90 respectively.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 70237.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 48865.71 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 1 horticulture trees and 164 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1257.14 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.57 per cent depends on own funds and 22.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (34.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 94.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (65.71%) and oilseeds (2.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (2.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.00%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (65.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The debate on whether to introduce the opting-out system is complex and involves various ethical, philosophical, psychological and legal issues. Different answers are given to questions such as "Who owns the body of the dead person? Does the State own the body of the deceased person or does the body belong to the next of kin? Should the decision whether or not to donate the organs of a dead relative be taken by the State? How informed are people about opting-out? If persons are not aware of the system, would the organs still be taken even when relatives are against opting-out?" Because there is no consensus regarding these and other questions, some sections of society and groups may present resistance to introducing the system. On the other hand, doctors' associations as well as other lobby groups argue that organs should not go to waste and agree with State intervention to retrieve more organs through the introduction of opting-out. The question asked by those in favour of opting-out is "How fair is it for thousands of people to keep on waiting for an organ transplant, when it is possible to reduce these numbers drastically by legislation?" This is the problem facing policy makers. Should the state try to encourage and facilitate a gradual change in public opinion towards opting-out or should legislation on presumed consent be introduced? ; peer-reviewed

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Anekatte Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and behavior, use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 544 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and six land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of July to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 97 per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and three per cent not suitable for agriculture.  About 60 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 32 per cent moderately deep (75-100cm) and 5 per cent moderately shallow (50-75%) soils.  About 25 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 65 per cent loamy soils and 7 per cent sandy soils.  About 38 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 12 per cent gravelly (15-35%) and 48 per cent very gravelly to extremely gravelly (35-80%) soils.  About 59 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 92 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) and 5 per cent gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 52 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 45 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 21 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid, 36 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 40 per cent slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 9 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is high (>10 ppm) in about 28 per cent area, low (4.5 ppm) in about 93 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 60 per cent area and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 37 per cent area.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (13) 158 (29) Guava 46 (9) 221 (41) Fodder Sorghum 71 (13) 158 (29) Pomegranate 71 (13) 172 (32) Maize - 133 (24) Banana 71 (13) 172 (32) Upland paddy 71 (13) 195 (36) Jackfruit 71 (13) 84 (15) Finger millet 71 (13) 138 (25) Jamun 71 (13) 135 (25) Redgram 71 (13) 197 (36) Musambi 71 (13) 172 (32) Horse gram 96 (18) 331 (61) Lime 71 (13) 172 (32) Field bean 71 (13) 197 (36) Cashew 46 (9) 100 (18) Cowpea 71 (13) 197 (36) Custard apple 71 (13) 356 (65) Groundnut - 305 (56) Amla 71 (13) 356 (65) Sunflower 71 (13) 133 (24) Tamarind 71 (13) 135 (25) Onion 24 (4) 147 (27) Marigold 71 (13) 197 (36) Chilli 71 (13) 197 (36) Chrysanthemum 71 (13) 197 (36) Brinjal 71 (13) 197 (36) Jasmine 71 (13) 197 (36) Tomato 71 (13) 197 (36) Coconut 46 (9) 100 (18) Mango 71 (13) 135 (25) Arecanut 46 (9) 100 (18) Sapota 71 (13) 76 (14) Mulberry - (2200) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food,fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Anekatte micro-watershed (Anekatte sub watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13024' – 13026' North latitudes and 76031' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 544.32 ha, bounded by Aralikere, Kallenahalli, Navule, Gowdanahalli, Kurubarahalli and Bevinahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Anekatte Microwatershed (Anekatte sub watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52 to 48 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 48 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 89 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) and other backward caste (OBC) is around 10 and 40 per cent, respectively.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 60 per cent.  About 60 per cent of households have Yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (70 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 10 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.92 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 45.8 % and irrigated land 54.2 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 9 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 85.0 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 85481 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 10623 per household, about 50 per cent of sample farmers having plough and weeder (74 %).  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 28125 per household; about 82.3 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 681.5 grams (1600.9 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.25693 per household. About 20 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1272 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 584 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 309005 per year for the total area of 544.32 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 11804/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs. 40596) followed by horse gram (Rs. 15989), sorghum (Rs. 11528), ragi (Rs. 5593), green gram (Rs. 4778), maize (Rs. 2562) and sesamum (Rs. 1579).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2413/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 5273) followed by ragi (Rs. 2489), horse gram (Rs. 1466), and sorghum (Rs. 423).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 3 67233) followed by sorghum (Rs 53775), green gram (Rs. 35719), maize (Rs. 33063), horse gram (Rs. 23761) and ragi (Rs. 11418). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is horse gram (24.7 %) followed by maize (14.4 %), green gram (11.8 %), ragi (31.0 %), red gram (3.3 %), sesamum (3.3%) and sorghum (11.5 %).  In Anekatte micro-watershed, major soil is alluvial landscape of Bidanagere (BDG) series is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 14.11 of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing ragi (50 %) red gram (50 %).Hooradhahalli (HDH) are also having moderately deep soil depth cover around 16.9 % of area, the crops are green gram (14.2 %), ragi (65.3 %) and sesamum (20.4 %). Mukhadahalli (BPR) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 22.25 % of areas, crops are green gram (11.1 %), horse gram (38.8 %), ragi (11.1 %) and sorghum (38.8 %). Ravanaki (LGD) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 17.62 % of area, crops are green gram (12 %), horse gram (38 %), and ragi (5.0 %). Kadagathur (KDT) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 8.5 % of area; the major crops are horse gram (33.3 %), maize (33.3%) and ragi (33.3 %). Ranatur (RTR) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 4.4 % of area, the major crop grown is green gram (50 %) and maize (50 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for green gram ranges between Rs.107918/ha in LGD soil (with BCR of 1.53) and Rs.22068/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.34).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 98303/ha in LGD soil (with of 1.05) and Rs.10268/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.73).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 22616/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.53) and Rs. 16591/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 2.38).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between is Rs 51788/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.28) and Rs. 49867/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.17).  In sesamum the cost of cultivation in HDH soil is Rs.39168 /ha (with BCR of 1.51)  In red gram the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs. 47969/ha (with BCR of 1.80) and sorghum the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs.20230/ha (with BCR of 2.27).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. 4  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in ragi (83.3 to 59.5 %), green gram (58.7 to 42.2 %), maize (60.8 to 70.4 %), horse gram (13.2 %), sorghum (28.4 %) and sesamum (11.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Karahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 434 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and 3 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units), and six land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of July to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 95 per cent in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and two per cent not suitable for agriculture.  About 45 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 43 per cent moderately deep (75-100cm) and 7 per cent shallow to moderately shallow (25- 75%) soils.  About 5 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 89 per cent loamy soils.  About 3 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 22 per cent gravelly (15-35%) and 70 per cent very gravelly to extremely gravelly (35-80%) soils.  About 61 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 70 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) and 25 per cent gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 28 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 67 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 79 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid and 16 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 18 per cent of the soils are low (0.6 ppm) in about 7 per cent area and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 87 per cent area.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 211 (48) Guava - 167 (38) Fodder Sorghum - 211 (48) Pomegranate - 220 (50) Maize - 114 (26) Banana - 220 (50) Upland paddy - 307 (71) Jackfruit - 139 (32) Finger millet - 255 (59) Jamun - 151 (35) Redgram - 228 (52) Musambi - 228 (52) Horse gram - 368 (85) Lime - 228 (52) Field bean - 228 (52) Cashew - 167 (38) Cowpea - 228 (52) Custard apple 31 (7) 337 (77) Groundnut - 271 (62) Amla - 368 (84) Sunflower - 211 (48) Tamarind - 151 (35) Onion - 193 (44) Marigold - 235 (54) Chilli - 228 (52) Chrysanthemum - 235 (54) Brinjal - 228 (52) Jasmine - 235 (54) Tomato - 228 (52) Coconut - 131 (30) Mango - 81 (19) Arecanut - 131 (30) Sapota - 131 (30) Mulberry 39 (9) (2282) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder, fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Karahalli micro-watershed (Anekatte sub-watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk and Tumkur district) is located in between 13023' – 13025' North latitudes and 76033' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 434.02 ha, bounded by Navule, Anekatte Varedahalli, Siddaramanagara and Marasandra villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days.We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Karahalli Microwatershed (Anekatte subwatershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk and Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 52.6 to 47.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52.6 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 89.5 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 90.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all the sample households.  About 70.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (50%) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 60.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities of all the sample households.  Institutional participation is only 2.6 per cent.  Women participation in local organisation is around 30 % of the sample households. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.5 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 34.4 % and irrigated land is 65.6 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 81.6 per cent and agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 13.2 per cent of the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 13478 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs 6110 per household, about 80 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs 20476 per household; about 27.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 726.1 grams (1576.6 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 35342 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs 1069. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 800 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 328649 per year for the total area of 434.02 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 30921/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 80945) followed by beans (Rs. 55109), green gram (Rs. 7575), sorghum (Rs. 7046) and ragi (Rs. 3929).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3597/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs. 5191) followed by ragi (Rs. 4975) and greengram (Rs. 625).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 390405) followed by beans (Rs. 224539), sorghum (Rs. 38850), green gram (Rs. 32747) and ragi (Rs. 13592). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is green gram (33.6 %) followed by ragi (25.0 %) sorghum (22.6 %), horse gram (14.0 %) and coconut (4.8 %).  In Karahalli Microwatershed, major soils are Hooradhahalli (HDH) series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 14.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing greengram (40.3 %), ragi (40.3 %) and sorghum (19.4 %). Huliyapura (HLP) is also having moderately deep soil depth cover around 6.1 % of area; the crops are coconut (23.6 %) and sorghum (76.4 %). Bidanagere (BDG) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 22.2 % of areas, crops are beans (50 %) and greengram (50 %). Nagalapur (NGP) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 7.7 % of area; the major crops grown are greengram (55.4 %) and ragi (44.6 %). Chikka Tanda (CKT) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 3.8 % of area, the major crop grown is ragi (50 %) and sorghum (50 %). Thondigere (TDG) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 14.4 %; crops are greengram (70.2 %) and ragi (29.8 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for greengram ranges between Rs.19147/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs. 15135/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.76).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs.36323/ha in TDG soil (with BCR of 1.23) and Rs 12152/ha in HDH soil (with BCR of 1.55).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation a range between Rs.26682/ha in CKT soil (with BCR of 1.32) and Rs. 17739/ha in HLP soil (with BCR of 2.19).  In beans the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs.14051/ha (with BCR of 4.92) and coconut the cost of cultivation in HLP soil is Rs 93408/ha (with BCR of 1.87).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. 4  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in greengram (42.4 to 53.4 %), ragi (54.7 to 76.6 %), sorghum (46.4 to 70.7 %) and coconut (20.3 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Channamallipura Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 622 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagara district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 539 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 84 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 27 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rdweek of June to 3rd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 27 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 80 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and 3 per cent not suitable for agriculture, but, well suited for other alternate use.  About 52 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 32 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 33 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 51 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 54 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 30 per cent area very low (0.75).  About 38 per cent of the area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 56 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 27 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in an area of about 37per cent, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 44 per cent and high (>1.0 ppm) in 4 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 83 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 43 per cent of the soils in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 215(35) 120(19) Guava 122(20) 39(6) Maize 131 (21) 44(7) Mango 25(4) 98(16) Redgram 131(21) 193(31) Sapota 122(20) 39(6) Horsegram 131(21) 237(38) Jackfruit 122(20) - Sunflower 47(7) 244(39) Jamun 282(45) - Cotton 206(33) 53(9) Musambi 282(45) 34(6) Beans 122(20) 212(34) Lime 282(45) 34(6) Field beans 122(20) 212(34) Cashew 239(38) 30(5) Onion 122(20) 212(34) Custard apple 282(45) 87(14) Beetroot 122(20) 53(9) Amla 282(45) 87(14) Groundnut 9(1) 196(32) Tamarind 282(45) 30(5) Banana 122(20) 168(27) Marigold 131(21) 233(38) Potato 122(20) 53(9) Chrysanthemum 122(20) 212(34) Turmeric 122(20) 53(9) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Channamallipur Microwatershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11045' – 11047' North latitudes and 76032' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 622 ha, bounded by Masahalli, Hongahalli, Maddur, Kannigala and Lakkipur villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Channamallipur micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 54.9 to 45.1 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 56.8 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 64.7 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 40 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent.  About 90 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 9.8 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 50 per cent of households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.30 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 39.3 per cent and 2 irrigated land 60.7 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 52.9 per cent and agriculture is the main agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 45.1 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.10246 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.71959 per household, about 70 per cent of sample farmers having plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.21993 per household; among all sample households are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 642.9 grams (1478.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 90 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.54887 per household. About 60 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1024. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.573 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 298568 per year for the total area of 622.25 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 25359/ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in turmeric (Rs.45068) followed by onion (Rs. 41159), beans (Rs. 40766), maize (Rs. 37913), bengal gram (Rs. 22624), ginger (Rs. 14589), groundnut (Rs. 1967) and marigold is negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 376/ ha/year in groundnut.  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs. 319783) followed by maize (Rs. 219516), bengal gram (Rs.62255), ginger (Rs. 53384), turmeric (Rs. 41108), groundnut (Rs. 19596) and onion (Rs. 16796). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is turmeric (31.1 %) followed by marigold (15.5 %), horse gram (15.4 %), groundnut (14.8 %), onion (7.9 %), sunflower (5.7 %), bengal gram (3.6 %), ginger (3.0 %) and beans (2.6 %).  In Channamallipur Microwatershed, major soil is Annurkeri (ARK) series is having very deep soil depth cover around 3.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing beans (50 %) and marigold (50 %), soil of very dark greyish brown to dark grey and very dark brown clayey soils of Beemanabeedu (BMB) are also having very deep soil depth cover 25.6 % of area, the crops are turmeric (56.8 %), onion (15.1%), beans (10.1 %), marigold (10.1 %), ginger (5.8 %) and maize (2.1 %). Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 7.1 % of areas, crops are groundnut (67.6 %), beans (16.2 %) and marigold (16.2 %). Shivapura (SPR) soil series having shallow soil depth cover around 11.6 % of area, crops are bengal gram (25.2 %), marigold (25.2 %), turmeric (24.8 %) and beans (24.8 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for beans ranges between Rs.26324/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.92) and Rs.16994/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 3.45).  In marigold the cost of cultivation range between Rs 76119/ha in HPR soil (with of 1.1) and Rs.35758/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.64).  In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between Rs.145477 /ha in SPR soil (with BCR of 1.51) and Rs. 99630/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.46).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in SPR soil is Rs.29730/ha (with BCR of 1.08).  In ginger the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.85285/ha (with BCR of 1.17).  In maize the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.82575/ha (with BCR of 1.17) and onion cultivation in BMB soil is Rs 51466/ha (with BCR of 1.8).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthen institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthen agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in marigold (24.1 to 29.7 %), onion (74.7 %), bengal gram (38.4 %), ginger (34 %) and maize (27.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Navule Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 684 ha in Chikkanayakanahalli taluk of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 700 mm, of which about 378 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 179 mm during north-east and the remaining 143 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 94 per cent is covered by soils and six per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 29 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of July to 3rd week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 61 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 30 per cent moderately deep and 3 per cent moderately shallow.  About 23 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 67 per cent loamy soils.  About 34 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m).  About 80 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1- 3% slope) lands and 13 per cent gently sloping (3-5%).  An area of about 69 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 24 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 24 per cent has soils that are slightly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) to moderately acid, 38 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 32 per cent slightly to moderately alkaline.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 3 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is high (>10 ppm) in about 12 per cent area and medium (10- 20 ppm) in about 79 per cent area and low (4.5 ppm) in 91 per cent and deficiant in 3 per cent area.  Available manganese, copper and zinc are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure,marked price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 144 (21) 274(40) Guava 16 (2) 350 (51) Fodder Sorghum 144 (21) 274(40) Pomogranate 16 (2) 348 (51) Maize 144 (21) 48 (7) Banana 16 (2) 348 (51) Upland paddy 144 (21) 298 (44) Jackfruit 16 (2) 307 (45) Finger millet 144 (21) 126 (18) Jamun 16 (2) 226 (33) Redgram 144 (21) 274 (40) Musambi 16 (2) 402 (32) Horse gram 144 (21) 472 (69) Lime 16 (2) 402 (32) Field bean 144 (21) 274 (40) Cashew 16 (2) 350 (51) Cowpea 144 (21) 274 (40) Custard apple 164 (24) 453 (56) Groundnut 144 (21) 246 (36) Amla 144 (21) 472 (69) Sunflower 16 (2) 402 (59) Tamarind 16 (2) 226 (33) Onion 144 (21) 143 (21) Marigold 144 (21) 274 (40) Chilli 144 (21) 274 (40) Chrysanthemum 144 (21) 274 (40) Brinjal 144 (21) 274 (40) Jasmine 144 (21) 274 (40) Tomato 144 (21) 274 (40) Coconut 16 (2) 176 (26) Mango 16 (2) 600 (88) Arecanut 16 (2) 176 (26) Sapota 16 (2) 176 (26) Mulberry 68 (10) (3247) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining ecological balance and contribute to mitigating climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Navule micro-watershed (Anekatte sub-watershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13025' – 13026' North latitudes and 76033' – 76035' East longitudes, covering an area of about 684.17 ha, bounded by Muddenahalli, Shavashettyhalli, Katenahalli, Navule, Yarehalli, Aralikere and Muddhenahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days.We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Navule micro-watershed (Anekatte subwatershed, Chikkanayakanahalli taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 49 to 51 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 49 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 95.8 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 10.0 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 20.0 per cent.  About 80.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (60.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities among all the sample households.  Institutional participation is only 6.3 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 10 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.64 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small farmers. The rainfed land is around 48.6 % and irrigated land is around 51.4 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 4.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 61.7 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 12134 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average farm assets value is around Rs. 103179 per household, about 30.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 47000 per household; among all household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 693.4 grams (1638.3 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 83358 per household. About 60 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1328. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 484 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 310009 per year for the total area of 451.5 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grains production is around Rs. 28636/ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 87821) followed by maize (Rs.21942), ragi (Rs. 11884), green gram (Rs. 6969), sorghum and horse gram are negative return  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around sorghum (Rs. 3437) followed by ragi (Rs. 2408), horse gram (Rs. 2058), maize (Rs. 1825), green gram (Rs. 396) and coconut (Rs. 127).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 317967) followed by greengram (Rs. 37276), horse gram (Rs. 23758), maize (Rs. 22303), sorghum (Rs. 19640) and ragi (Rs. 16479). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is greengram (27.9 %) followed by ragi (22.9 %), coconut (20.6 %), maize (14.7 %), areca nut (6.2 %), cardamom (6.2 %), horse gram (0.6 %) and sorghum (0.6 %).  In Navule micro-watershed, major soil is Gollarahatti (GHT) soil are moderately deep well drained, around 21.55 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing coconut. Balapur (BPR) soil series having soils are deep soil depth cover around 12.41 % of areas; crops are greengram (40.6 %), maize (30.3 %) and ragi (29.1 %). Giddadapalya (GDP) and Nagalapur (NGP) are also having soils are deep soil depth cover around 7.52 % and 5.53 % of area, respectively; the crops are greengram and ragi. Shirur (SRR) soil having are deep moderately well drained, around 11.29 % of area; crops are horse gram (29.4 %) and sorghum (70.6 %). Muradi (MRD) and Thondigere (TDG) soil series having are very deep soil depth covered around 2.35 % and 13.81 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are coconut and ragi.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for coconut ranges between Rs.102779/ha in TDH soil (with BCR of 1.63) and Rs. 31404/ha in GHT (with BCR of 3.79).  In ragi the cost of cultivation of range between Rs. 59287/ha in TDG soil (with BCR of 1.13) and Rs. 26060/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.65).  In green gram the cost of cultivation range between and Rs. 38449 in GDP soil (with BCR of 1.00) and Rs. 22173/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.53).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation in SRR soil is Rs.31605/ha (with BCR of 1.51).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in SRR soil is Rs 15995/ha (with BCR of 1.14) and maize the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs 10910 /ha (with BCR of 3.18)  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in coconut (20.9 to 42.9 %), ragi (57.4 to 77.0%), green gram (30.5 to 36.6 %), horse gram (40.9 %), maize (78.0 %) and sorghum (29.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Maddenahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 588 ha in Gubbi taluk of Tumakuru district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 813 mm, of which about 466 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 196 mm during north-east and the remaining 151 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soils, five per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rd week of June to third week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 95 per cent area is suitable for agriculture.  About 95 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm).  About 17 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 78 per cent loamy soils.  About 56 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 34 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 6 per cent has very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 55 per cent has soils that are very low (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 83 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 12 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%).  An area of about 74 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 22 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 28 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5),40 per cent area moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 28 per cent strongly acid (pH 5.0-5.5) and 6 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 19 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is high (>10 ppm) in about 1 per cent area and medium (10-20 ppm) in about 94 per cent area.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 95 per cent area and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in the entire microwatershed area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 52 per cent of soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (Class S1) and moderately suitable (Class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 219 (37) 18 (3) Guava 86 (15) 423 (72) Fodder Sorghum 219 (37) 18 (3) Pomegranate 219 (37) 18 (3) Maize - 237 (40) Banana 219 (37) 18 (3) Upland paddy 219 (37) 68 (12) Jackfruit 219 (37) 18 (3) Finger millet 219 (37) 68 (12) Jamun 219 (37) 18 (3) Red gram 219 (37) 18 (3) Musambi 219 (37) 18 (3) Horse gram 219 (37) 340 (58) Lime 219 (37) 18 (3) Field bean 219 (37) 18 (3) Cashew 86 (15) 405 (69) Cowpea 219 (37) 18 (3) Custard apple 219 (37 ) 340 (58) Groundnut 86 (15) 322 (55) Amla 219 (37 ) 340 (58) Sunflower 219 (37) 18 (3) Tamarind 219 (37) 18 (3) Onion 133 (23) 104 (18) Marigold 219 (37) 18 (3) Chilli 219 (37) 18 (3) Chrysanthemum 219 (37) 18 (3) Brinjal 219 (37) 18 (3) Jasmine 219 (37) 18 (3) Tomato 219 (37) 18 (3) Coconut 86 (15) 151 (26) Mango 219 (37) 18 (3) Arecanut 86 (15) 151 (26) Sapota 219 (37) 18 (3) Mulbery 25 (5) (4557) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Maddenahalli micro-watershed (Bangihalli sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13027' – 13028' North latitudes and 76051' – 76053' East longitudes, covering an area of about 588.21 ha, bounded by Sanabanahalli, Maranahalli, Madhenahalli and Pinnenahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Maddenahalli micro-watershed (Bangihalli sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 59.2 to 40.8 Per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is 57.1 around per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 87.8 per cent.  Social groups among all are general caste.  Among all farm households having liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking.  About 50 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Farm households are having MGNREGA card only 20 per cent for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 percent of farm households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making is around 77.8 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.72 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The rainfed land is 91 per cent and 9 per cent of irrigated land is cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 53.1 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 14.3 per cent of the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.16772 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 104460 per household; about 70 per cent of sample farmers having plough and bullock cart.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.17271 per household; about 81.25 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 455.7 grams (1138.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.102052 per household. About 50 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.818. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 442 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 247521per year for the total area of 588.21 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 70428/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in Mango (Rs. 227566) followed by areca nut (Rs. 105087), coconut (Rs. 84360), ragi (Rs.7727), sorghum (Rs. 600) and paddy is negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3356/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in paddy (Rs. 4693), sorghum (Rs. 3356) and ragi (Rs. 2020).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 277513) followed by mango (Rs. 65867), sorghum (Rs. 31043), paddy (Rs. 14463), ragi (Rs.12515) and areca nut (Rs.4284). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is ragi (28.4 %) followed by areca nut (28.4 %), sorghum (23.5 %), coconut (12.9 %), mango (5.9 %) and paddy (1.1 %).  In Maddenahalli micro-watershed, major soil series are Balapur series having very deep soil depth covered around 46.23 % of area; major crops are areca nut (82.5 %), and ragi (17.5 %). Kadagathur soils series are having very deep soil depth covered around 14.64 % of area on this soil farmers are presently growing areca nut (20.6 %), coconut (16.1 %), ragi (31.6%) and sorghum (31.6 %). Ranatur soils series are having very deep soil depth covers around 17.98 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing coconut (13.4 %), mango (18.0 %), ragi (27.5%) and sorghum (41.1 %). Thimmasandra soils series are having very deep soil depth covers around 3.11 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing paddy (50 %) and sorghum (50 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for coconut range between Rs 97036/ha in KDT soil (with of 2.01) and Rs. 69905/ha in RTR soil (with BCR of 1.11).  In areca nut the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs.69122/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.92) and Rs.8499/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 18.24).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 25729/ha KDT soil (with BCR of 0.98) and Rs.16497/ha RTR soil (with BCR of 1.62).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 37931/ha BPR soil (with BCR of 1.18) and Rs.15857/ha KDT soil (with BCR of 1.51).  In mango the cost of cultivation in RTR soil Rs.28582/ha (with BCR of 8.96) and  In paddy the cost of cultivation in RTR soil Rs.32164/ha (with BCR of 1.62).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. 4  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in areca nut (91.4 to 91.6 %), coconut (8.1 to 79.9 %), sorghum (57.7to 73.9 %) and ragi (68.9 to 76.0 %), mango (63.0 %) and paddy (85.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nandihalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 354 ha in Gubbi taluk of Tumakuru district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 813 mm, of which about 466 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 196 mm during north-east and the remaining 151 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 57per cent is covered by soils. 41 per cent is covered by gullied lands and 2 per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rd week of June to third week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 57 percent area is suitable for agriculture and 41 percent is not suitable for agriculture  About 48 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 8 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow.  About 10 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 47 per cent loamy soils.  About 48 per cent of the soils are non gravelly, 7 per cent of the soils are gravelly (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 52 per cent of the area has nearly level (0-1%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and about 4 per cent of the area is gently sloping (3-5%).  An area of about 36 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 19 per cent moderately eroded (e2). Very small area of about 1 per cent is severely eroded and 41 per cent is covered by gullied lands.  Maximum area of about 70 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic to strongly acid (pH 5.0-6.5), 27 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and 61 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha).  About 48 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 76 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in an area of 22 per cent.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in maximum area about 84 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 14 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 54 per cent of soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 110 (31) 41(12) Guava 90(26) 32(9) Fodder Sorghum 110 (31) 41(12) Pomegranate 110 (31) 12(3) Maize 56(16) 95(27) Banana 110 (31) 12(3) Upland paddy 110 (31) 41(12) Jackfruit 110 (31) 12(3) Finger millet 110 (31) 41(12) Jamun 110 (31) 89(25) Red gram 110 (31) 41(12) Musambi 110 (31) 12(3) Horse gram 121(34) 79 (22) Lime 110 (31) 12(3) Field bean 110 (31) 41(12) Cashew 90(26) 32(9) Cowpea 110 (31) 41(12) Custard apple 110 (31) 89(25) Groundnut 17(5) 163 (26) Amla 110 (31) 89(25) Sunflower 110 (31) 12(3) Tamarind 110 (31) - Onion 76 (21) 75(21) Marigold 110 (31) 89(25) Chilli 110 (31) 41(12) Chrysanthemum 110 (31) 89(25) Brinjal 110 (31) 41(12) Jasmine 110 (31) 89(25) Tomato 110 (31) 41(12) Coconut 90(26) 32(9) Mango 110(31) - Arecanut 90(26) 32(9) Sapota 110 (31) 12(3) Mulbery 15(5) 107(30) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Nandihalli micro-watershed (Pillahalli sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13028' – 13029' North latitudes and 76053' – 76055' East longitudes, covering an area of about 353.56 ha, bounded by Malamachanakunte and Nallur villages with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Nandihalli micro-watershed (Pillahalli subwatershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 57.1 to 42.9 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 59.2 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 71.5 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste OBC is around 50.0 per cent.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 90.0 per cent.  About 80.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (70.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 70 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 6.12 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 30 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.98 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 54.7 % and irrigated land 45.3 % of total cultivated land among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 82.1 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 7.8 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 10528 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 126927 per household, about 40 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 23229 per household; about 40 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 659.9 grams (1380.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 113300 per household. About 60.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 1233. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 634 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 125033 per year for the total area of 348 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 307802/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in mango (Rs 378917) followed by areca nut (Rs. 193859), coconut (Rs. 65339), sorghum (Rs. 14607), horse gram (Rs. 7705), ragi (Rs. 7297), greengram (Rs. 4482).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1520/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in greengram (Rs. 2100) followed by horse gram (Rs 1630), ragi (Rs. 1610) and sorghum (Rs. 741).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in coconut (Rs. 3 291170), sorghum (Rs. 48936), green gram (Rs. 34116), horse gram (Rs. 21794), ragi (Rs. 12918) and arecanut (Rs. 10284). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is coconut (29.0 %) followed by ragi (24.0 %), arecanut (16.7 %), sorghum (5.4 %), mango (3.2 %) and greengram (7.2 %) and horse gram (19.0 %).  In Nandihalli micro-watershed, major soil is Hallikere (HLK) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 11.09 per cent of areas. On present farmers growing crops are arecanut (15.4 %), coconut (26.4 %), horse gram (16.2 %) and, ragi (38.5 %). Kadagathur (KDT) and Niduvalalu (NDL) soils are also very deep soil depth covers around 9.71 per cent and 13.51 per cent of areas, respectively; the crops are arecanut (8.1 %), coconut (39.8 %), green gram (6.6 %), horse gram (9.9), ragi (22.3 %) and sorghum (13.3 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for arecanut ranges between Rs. 170736/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 2.27) and Rs. 44110/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 4.90).  In coconut the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 104051/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.71) and Rs. 53371/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 1.90).  In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 21154/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 1.23) and Rs. 17249/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.79).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 26647/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.56) and Rs. 15725/ha in HLK soil (with BCR of 1.02).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation is Rs. 22319/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.69) and mango the cost of cultivation is Rs. 32750/ha in NDL soil (with BCR of 12.57).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. 4  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in arecanut (86.1 to 76.5 %), ragi (75.7 to 60.2 %), coconut (53.5 to 18.7 %), horse gram (39.3 to 15.7 %), green gram (42.2 %), mango (47.3 %) and sorghum (42.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Pinnenahalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 472 ha in Gubbi taluk of Tumakuru district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 813 mm, of which about 466 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 196 mm during north-east and the remaining 151 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils and one per cent by others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from 3rd week of June to third week of November.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 34 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  About 78 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm), 16 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and 5 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 16 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 83 per cent loamy soils.  About 47 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 99 per cent of the area has gently sloping (1-3%) to very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 67 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 32 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  Maximum area of about 79 per cent has soils that are slightly acidic to strongly acid (pH 5.0-6.5) and 20 per cent area has neutral (pH 6.5-7.3).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 3 per cent of the soils are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10 -20 ppm) in an area of about 4 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in an area of 94 per cent.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 36 per cent of soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 34 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 119 (25) 24 (5) Guava 109 (23) 216 (46) Fodder Sorghum 119 (25) 24 (5) Pomegranate 109 (23) 9(2) Maize - 133 (28) Banana 109 (23) 9(2) Upland paddy 109 (23) 109 (23) Jackfruit 109 (23) - Finger millet 109 (23) 100 (21) Jamun 109 (23) 9(2) Redgram 109 (23) 33 (7) Musambi 119 (25) - Horse gram 133 (28) 332 (71) Lime 119 (25) - Field bean 109 (23) 33 (7) Cashew 109 (23) - Cowpea 109 (23) 33 (7) Custard apple 119 (25 ) - Groundnut - 456 (97) Amla 119 (25 ) - Sunflower 119 (25) - Tamarind 109 (23) 9(2) Onion - 133 (28) Marigold 119 (25) 55 (12) Chilli 119 (25) 24 (5) Chrysanthemum 119 (25) 55 (12) Brinjal 119 (25) 24 (5) Jasmine 119 (25) 55 (12) Tomato 119 (25) 24 (5) Coconut 109 (23) - Mango 109 (23) - Arecanut 109 (23) - Sapota 109 (23) - Mulbery - 324 (69) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Pinnenahalli Microwatershed (Tyagatur sub-watershed, Gubbi taluk, Tumkur district) is located in between 13027' – 13028' North latitudes and 76049' – 76052' East longitudes, covering an area of about 471.74 ha, bounded by Pinnenahalli, Karegondanahalli, Kempanahalli, Varthikatte, Maddenahalli and Jogihalli villages with an length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Pinnenahalli Microwatershed in Gubbi taluk and Tumkur district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 56.8 to 43.2 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 63.6 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 84.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to general category of all sample households.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LGP) is the source of energy for a cooking of all sample households.  About 30 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (20.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on rations cards for food grains through public distribution system about 80.0 percent of farm households.  Swachha bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50.0 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 13.6 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 45 per cent of sample household. Economic Indicators; 2  The average land holding is 0.55 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal farmers. The dry land of 90.3 % and irrigated land 9.7 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 59.1 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour services is main occupation for 2.3 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 52198 households. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.70579 per household, about 30 per cent of sample farmers having plough and tractor.  The average value livestock of is around Rs.14380 per household, about 75 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 478.1 grams (1188.29) kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 37269 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.749. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 471 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 219334 per year for the total area of 471.7 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 20287 /ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in coconut (Rs. 62915) followed by red gram (Rs. 20804), sorghum (Rs. 16238), horse gram (Rs. 10607), green gram (Rs. 7117) and ragi (Rs. 4039).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2193/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in ragi (Rs. 3850) followed by sorghum (Rs. 2198), green gram (Rs. 1611) and horse gram (Rs. 1112).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water coconut (Rs. 305755), red gram (Rs. 57220), sorghum (Rs. 51041), green gram (Rs. 37082), horse gram (Rs. 22808) and ragi (Rs 15041). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is coconut (57.3 %) followed by ragi (33.7 %), red gram (13.9 %), sorghum (7.0 %), green gram (6.8 %) and horse gram (5.9 %).  In Pinnenahalli micro-watershed, major soil are soils of granite gneiss landscape of Kethanapura (KTP) series is having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 5.0 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing ragi. Bidanagere (BDG) is also having moderately deep soil depth cover 16.1% of area, the crops are ragi (50 %) and sorghum (50 %). Balapur (BPR) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 45.8% of areas, crops are coconut (15.9 %), green gram (13.8%), horse gram (12.0 %), ragi (30.1 %) and red gram (28.2 %). Shyanadrahalli (SNH) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 2.0 % of area; crops are coconut. Kadagathur (KDT) soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around 23.1 % of area; the major crops grown are coconut (68.4 %) and ragi (31.6 %).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for coconut ranges between Rs. 67960/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.97) and Rs. 28631/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 4.39).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 39120/ha in BPR soil (with BCR of 1.25) and Rs. 20020/ha in KDT soil (with BCR of 1.54).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in BDG soil is Rs. 18928/ha (with BCR of 1.97).  In red gram the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs. 20187/ha (with BCR of 2.03).  In green gram the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is RS. 277885/ha (with BCR of 1.31) and horse gram the cost of cultivation in BPR soil is Rs. 16069/ha (with BCR of 1.73).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in ragi (57.9 to 67.6 %), coconut (36.6 to 38.9 %), sorghum (40.3 %), bengal gram (37.1 %), horse gram (24.1 %) and red gram (13.9 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project