Part II of this thesis is not available in Munin: Historien fremstilt i bilder. Knut Ljøgodt. Oslo, Pax Forlag, 2011, ISBN 9788253033211. ; Avhandlingen Historiemaleriet i Norge omhandler historiemaleri – eller nærmere bestemt historisk-mytologiske fremstillinger – med vekt på norsk kunst fra 1800-tallet, sett i sammenheng med spesielt skandinavisk og generelt vestlig kunsthistorie. Avhandlingen består av ialt fem tekster. Del 1, Introduksjon, gjør rede for avhandlingens tema, omfang og formål og knytter sammen de forskjellige tekstene. Introduksjonen redegjør for eksisterende forskning, samt for tilnærmingsmåter og mål med avhandlingen. Videre gis en oversikt over forståelsen av historiemaleriet gjennom tidene ,og det gjøres rede for ettertidens behandling av historiemaleriet og dermed genrens status i tidligere kunsthistorieskrivning. Del 2, boken Historien fremstilt i bilder, er den mest omfattende av tekstene og er å betrakte som avhandlingens kjerne. Dette utgjør den første større studien om fenomenet her til lands. Boken gir en oversikt over norsk historiemaleri på 1800-tallet, sett på bakgrunn av skandinaviske og europeiske strømninger. I boken vektlegges det videre å gå nærmere inn på valg av motivkretser, samt å se disse i forskjellige samtidige sammenhenger. I tillegg består avhandlingen tre artikler. Den første av disse er «Knud Baade als Historienmaler». Her får man et eksempel på én norsk kunstner på 1800-tallet som søkte å spesialisere seg som historiemaler. Deretter følger «'… nordiske Marmorguder'». Artikkelen tar for seg utsmykninger og planlagte, men ikke gjennomførte, utsmykninger ved Universitetet i Oslo på 1800-tallet og frem til Munchs aulamalerier. Hovedinteressen i de prosjekterte utsmykningene lå på historisk-mytologiske motiver. Artikkelen gir dermed et innblikk i hvilke muligheter som forelå, men også hvilke hindre som lå i veien for å utviklet et norsk historiemaleri. Den femte og siste av tekstene er «'Northern Gods in Marble'», som handler om 1800-tallets anvendelse av emner fra norrøn mytologi – og gir således muligheten for en mer fokusert studie av én sentral motivgruppe. Historiemaleriet i Norge gir således den første, brede oversikt over norsk historiemaleri på 1800-tallet. Tilnærmingen er empirisk idet avhandlingen for en stor del er basert på grunnforskning. Samtidig benyttes en ikonografisk tilnærmingsmåte for å se nærmere på motivgruppene. Videre benyttes en resepsjonshistorisk tilnærming for å se hvordan genren er blitt mottatt. Generelt søkes det å sette historiemaleriet inn i en større idéhistorisk og politisk-historisk sammenheng. Avhandlingen demonstrerer at historiemaleriet som genre var adskillig mer utbredt i norsk kunst på 1800-tallet enn tidligere antatt, og at en rekke sentrale kunstnere befattet seg med det. Videre demonstreres det at norsk historiemaleri må sees på bakgrunn av datidens politisk-historiske situasjon og at motivene for en stor del velges utfra nasjonale idealer. Som det kommer frem, dominerer motiver fra norrøn historie og mytologi. Avhandlingen stiller også spørsmål ved genrens marginaliserte posisjon i norsk og vestlig kunsthistorie og knytter således an til en revisjonistisk kunsthistorieskrivning.
Fiskekvotesystemet (1990) kan ha ulike kjønnsmessige virkninger i fiske, også i kystfiske. Bidrag som omhandler kvinners situasjon og kjønn er det imidlertid, med noen få hederlige unntak på 1990tallet, skrevet lite om hverken av fiskeri- eller kjønnsforskere. Ved å anvende feministisk forståelser og ulike metoder vil vi få bedre innsikt i forholdet mellom kjønn, kystfiske og fiskekvotesystemet. Vi anvender statistikk fra Fiskermanntallet og data produsert av ansatte I Fiskeridirektoratet. Disse tallene viser at antall registrerte kvinner og men i fiske har sunket betraktelig (ca 59%) siden 1990. Mellom 1990 og 2017 varierer antallet kvinnelige fiskere fra 2.7 til 3.2 %. Kvinner utgjorde i 2017 ca 2, 2 % av kystfiskebåt-eierne og de fleste kvinner eide båter mindre enn 11 meter. I 2017 eide kvinner 0,35 % av fiskebåter større enn 11 meter. Båter større enn 11 meter faller inn under gruppen som kan ha flere fiskekvoter tilknyttet båten sin der kvotene kan omsettes på markedet., kjøpes og selges. De fleste kvinnene disponerer kvoter I åpen gruppe som gir mindre kvoter og som ikke kan kjøpes og selges på kvotemarkedet. Går en nærmere inn i materialet, ser en at endringer I alder og geografisk tilhørighet varierer. Slike forhold virker ikke bare inn på tilstedeværelse I fiske, men også på rekruttering. Ved å kombinere tall-materialet med deltakende observasjon fra Troms og Finnmark, får en nærmere innsikt i ressursmessige, strukturelle, politiske og kulturelle forhold og samspillet mellom slike forhold. Dette er forhold som bidrar til både å fremme og hemme kvinners deltakelse i fiske. Slike data viser også hvordan kvinner i sær, tar initiativ for å styrke likestilling og rettferdighet på det fiskeripolitiske området – med noen få resultater. Gjennom en slik studie håper vi at data og kjønnsanalyser kan bidra til en mer nyansert forståelse av dagens norske kystfiske og ikke minst betydningen av kvinners deltakelse i dette fiske.
The Annual Report for Norges Bank Central Banking Operations (NBCBO) is not available in English. For more detailed information on central banking operations in 2017, please see Norges Bank's reports. Annual reporting for the Government Pension Fund Global is available on the fund's website. ; publishedVersion
The Annual Report for Norges Bank Central Banking Operations (NBCBO) is not available in English. For more detailed information on central banking operations in 2016, please see Norges Bank's reports. Annual reporting for the Government Pension Fund Global is available on the fund's website. ; publishedVersion
The Annual Report of the Executive Board and the financial statements. For more detailed information on central banking operations in 2018, please see Norges Bank's reports. Annual reporting for the Government Pension Fund Global is available on the fund's website. ; publishedVersion
As a means to drawing up the most accurate projections possible for economic developments, Norges Bank regularly evaluates its model-based forecasts. Analyses of forecast errors may make an important contribution to improving projections. It is also desirable to compare Norges Bank's projections with those of other institutions. The strength of the cyclical upswing was clearly underestimated in the projections for the period 1994-1996. Projections for employment growth were particularly low, also for the 1997 projections albeit to a lesser extent. On the other hand, forecasts for price and wage inflation were fairly accurate. The forecast errors were to a large extent ascribable to erroneous assumptions about economic policy, particularly growth in public demand. Petroleum investment was also much higher than projected. If the model-based projections are corrected for these factors, they are very close to the outturn, particularly for price and wage inflation. Over the past year, Norges Bank took steps to improve the accuracy of the exogenous variables used in the projections. Among other things, the estimate for public spending growth is supplemented by Norges Bank's own assessment of local government demand. Furthermore, data on oil-related activities are collected from a larger number of sources than earlier. Apreliminary analysis of forecast errors for 1998, based on figures from the national accounts figures published in February 1999, indicates that previous analyses of forecast errors may have improved the projections. Forecast errors seem to have been reduced in 1998 compared with the two previous years. A comparison with projections from Statistics Norway and the Ministry of Finance for the period between 1994 and 1998 indicates that the degree of forecast errors from the three institutions has been fairly similar. On average, however, projections from Statistics Norway and Norges Bank have been more accurate than forecasts from the Ministry of Finance. In this article, we focus on forecast errors stemming from erroneous estimates of economic policy and inaccurate projections for other exogenous variables. A more thorough analysis would also include a further disaggregation of errors stemming from the incorrect use of the model and those errors occurring due to model deficiencies. Such an analysis will be undertaken once the revision of the national accounts system that took place in the mid-1990s has been fully incorporated in the model data.
This report presents results from a project that NOVA has carried out in collaboration with Fafo on behalf of the Norwegian State Housing Bank. The purpose of the project is to provide new and updated knowledge about developments that may affect the Norwegian housing market in the coming years. The analyses in this report are based primarily on the survey EU- SILC 2012, with attached register data from 2011. EU-SILC 2012 contains a module with questions about housing conditions. In addition, we have used register data on migrant workers' movement between municipalities in Norway, and information from the Population and Housing Census 2011. The report can be read as an update of previous reviews of the EU-SILC surveys in Norway with additional modules on housing conditions (1997, 2001, 2004 and 2007), but we also present new topics and analysis. We represent the results as an anthology with independent chapters. The introductory chapter provides a context for the findings in the rest of the report, by presenting figures for the number of dwellings in Norway, some aspects of housing policy including the emergence of social housing as a priority in welfare policy, and some figures on population trends. It is emphasized in the chapter that the population in Norway is increasing, much as a result of labour migration. Consequently, the number of occupied dwellings and housing prices increase. At the same time the population ages, which increases the demand for universal access in housing. The theme of the first article is housing standards and accessibility in 2012. A main conclusion from this review is that the housing stock changes slowly, so that the results resemble those from the similar review of EU-SILC 2007. By far the most common type of house in Norway is single dwelling, while just under a quarter of all households live in an apartment or townhouse. There is also stability in housing sizes. Most respondents (58 per cent) live in homes with three to five rooms (the figure in 2007 was 60 per cent). There has been no increase in the number of households living in small homes, just under 20 percent of households live in dwellings with one or two rooms. 7 per cent of Norwegian households are overcrowded by the broadest objective definition, and a clear majority says that their residence has "just the right size". Moving is far more common among the youngest age groups, and is also common among people with short periods of residence in Norway. This indicates a pattern where young adult move several times before they eventually find a home to grow old in. Relatively few say they are experiencing problems with their housing or immediate neighbourhood. The problem mentioned most often is noise: 12 percent report that they experience noise from road traffic or neighbours while indoors in their own home. The final issue discussed in this chapter is housing conditions for people with disabilities. About a third of all homes have no physical barriers that prevent disabled people from entering, and 38 percent have all rooms located on the entry level. This is a higher proportion than what was found in 2007. In the second article, the topic is housing expenses. High relative housing expenses is defined as housing expenses in excess of 25 percent of total income. Comparison with data from the late 1990s suggests that the proportions experiencing this problem are very stable over time. Young households have high housing expenses, while older households have low housing expenses. Furthermore, it is especially singles and single parents who have high relative housing expenses. We find high relative housing expenses among households living in Oslo and Akershus, compared to the rest of the country. These patterns were also found in 2007. The chapter also presents some figures for indebtedness. We take the recommendation that the debt should not exceed three times the total income as a starting point. We see that the proportion of households with a mortgage of more than 3 times their gross income decreases with age. Among 20 -year-olds more than every fourth household have such debt burdens, while the same is true for just fewer than one in five households among 30 year olds. Article three is about the rental market. Most Norwegians visit the rental market one or more times during their life. The rental market is often used in transitional periods of life, such as in education, periods with temporary employment, and immediately after family breakup. The rental sector is also important for those who do not want to, or for various reasons are unable to, buy their own home. The typical tenant is a young and single person with low incomes. Renting contracts are largely short term. Tenants tend to have short residence time and many have plans to move. The probability of remaining a tenant however increases with increasing time in the rental market. The Norwegian rental market is dominated by private hire, and there are relatively few institutional landlords. This gives the Norwegian rental market an informal character with a lack of transparency, which can make it difficult for vulnerable groups to get a foothold in this market. The informal structure of the rental sector also makes it challenging to implement legal regulations. In the fourth article we look specifically at older households' housing situation. The elderly are less mobile in the housing market than younger people. Despite this, more than every tenth household where the reference person is 67 years or older changed residence in the last five years before the interview. The proportions that have moved in old age can still be higher, since five years is a relatively short measurement period - especially for the oldest old. Many seniors live in a home that is specially adapted for a household member with disabilities, but there is also a significant proportion who does not live in such housing and who feel they ought to have a special arrangement of the dwelling. This is reported by approximately every tenth household where the reference person is 67 years or older. In this study, we use two definitions of vulnerability in the housing market: (1) Individuals and households who have low income and live in unsuitable dwellings, and (2) those who are disadvantaged by definition 1, or have low incomes and at the same time high relative housing costs. Their situation is the topic of the fifth article. We find that 7 per cent of the respondents are vulnerable by definition 1, while 12 per cent come across as vulnerable if we rely on definition 2. Whichever of these two definitions we rely on, the same groups come across as most likely to be vulnerable: those most at risk are young adults and single parents, and there is also a high percentage of tenants among the vulnerable. In the sixth and final article, we seek to identify mobility patterns among immigrants in Norway. This article uses a different data set, namely registry data on all residents in Norway. We measure moving as change of municipality of residence from one year to another, which means that we only look at the moving patterns of people who have stayed in Norway for at least two consecutive years in the period under investigation. The total number of transfers between municipalities was slightly lower in 2009-2010 than in 2005-2006. This is mainly because Norwegians moved less. Immigrants' higher proportion of movements, and the fact that the proportion of immigrants had increased in the period, explains why the number of relocations were not further reduced. In 2006, the immigrants were responsible for 16 percent of all relocations, and this percentage increased to 22 percent in 2010. All immigrant groups are more likely to move between municipalities in their first years in Norway. Immigrants from countries in Asia and Africa have the highest propensity to move to Oslo and Akershus, while migrant workers from the European Economic Area also move to other regional centres in Rogaland ( Stavanger), Hordaland (Bergen ) or Sør-Trøndelag (Trondheim). The main results of the articles are summarized in the final chapter. The results are discussed in light of the social changes that are presented in the introductory chapter, and it is pointed out how the results can be seen in the context of policy making. Major changes in the size and composition of the population affect the demand for housing. Which dwellings are available, and the price levels in the housing market, influences the expectations and opportunities individual households have on this market. A central challenge in housing policies is to ascertain to what extent the housing market balances supply and demand in a satisfactory manner so that measures to correct undesirable outcomes may be applied. Analyses of living conditions, including housing conditions, based on surveys such as EU-SILC is an important source of information in this context, but should be complemented and combined with information from other data sources. Surveys often underestimate the number of disadvantaged people in the housing market, and thus provide unreliable information about the processes that lead into, and out of, difficult positions with regard to housing. ; Tidligere har bolig vært tema for Statistisk sentralbyrås levekårsundersøkelser i 1997, 2001, 2004 og 2007. I 2012 ble boforhold innlemmet som en nasjonal modul i EU-SILC. På oppdrag fra Husbanken har NOVA i samarbeid med Fafo analysert data fra sistnevnte undersøkelse. Rapporten gir en tilstandsrapport om boforholdene i Norge i 2012, og kan leses som en oppdatering av lignende studier som NOVA har gjennomført på bakgrunn levekårsanalysene tidligere. Denne rapporten inneholder artikler om boligstandard og tilgjengelighet, boutgifter og boutgiftsbelastning, leiemarkedet, eldres boligsituasjon, vanskeligstiltes situasjon på boligmarkedet og flyttemønstre blant arbeidsinnvandrere. Artiklene er skrevet av Anne Hege Strand, Anne Skevik Grødem, Roy A. Nielsen og Hans Christian Sandlie.
This article gives a brief overview of the usage of middle names in Denmark and Norway. The Acts of Personal Names in the Nordic countries, especially the Scandinavian, are in many ways inspired and influenced by each other, but there are also a number of differences. In the 1960s new legislations were introduced in Denmark and Norway caused by similar problems that had occurred. The protected family names were neglected as they were often used as middle names of individuals who did not have a legitimate relation to the name in question. Committees from the three Scandinavian countries collaborated on new legislations where the rules concerning middle names were stricter.Since then, new Acts of Names have been introduced in both Denmark and Norway, and albeit there is clear inspiration from the current Norwegian legislation in the Danish, significant differences are present. In Norway a middle name is a private name and the name-bearer's children cannot inherit it, while in Denmark that is possible. Furthermore, in Denmark a middle name can be adopted as the individual's official surname and that is not possible in Norway.The article also gives a short presentation of some selected studies regarding middle names in Norway and Denmark. These studies deal with the usage of middle names in a historical perspective as well as giving some insights in a more modern usage of middle names.
This paper examines participation in water management, more specifically in implementing the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) in Norway. Attainment of the goals of the WFD depends on new ways of coordinating the activities, knowledge and resources of many sectors and levels of government, including the private sector. The WFD explicitly emphasizes broad stakeholder involvement and public participation. The new network arena of River Basin District Water Boards at the regional level and Sub-District Boards at the sub-regional level, cut across existing municipal, regional and national borders. In each River Basin District, broad reference groups are established. Through surveys and qualitative case studies, we examine how this norm of participation is operationalized in the River Basin Districts, and how different actors evaluate it. We find that the reference grou ps have mobilized many actors from civil society and the private sector, but they do not report having influe nce. The role of the reference group is unclear. ; Artikkelen er skrevet i forskningsprosjektet «Water Pollution Abatement in a System of Multi-level Governance: A study of Norway's implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (WAPABAT), finansiert av MILJØ2015-programmet i Norges forskningsråd.
Nasjonal transportplanlegging i Norge og Sverige bygger på at transportetatene i samarbeid gjennomfører en omfattende strategisk analyse. Med utgangspunkt i transportpolitiske mål utformer de alternative strategiske innretninger og beregner virkningene for å illustrere det politiske handlingsrom. Planleggingen er forutsatt å være helhetlig og sikter mot en avveining mellom ulike tiltak på tvers av transportformene. Transportøkonomisk institutt har gjennomført og arbeider videre med evalueringsstudier av den strategiske planleggingen både i Norge og Sverige, særlig rettet mot planprosessen. Paperet presenterer og diskuterer resultatene fra de allerede avsluttede studiene med vekt på evalueringen av planprosessen i den svenske innretningsplanleggingen.
I forbindelse med projektet "Udvidet ulykkesstatistik om dødsulykker" er Vejdirektoratet og politiet fra 2010 begyndt at foretage dybdeanalyser af alle dødsulykker i Danmark. I Norge begyndte Statens vegvesens ulykkesanalysegrupper (UAG) allerede i 2005 at foretage sådanne dybdestudier af alle dødsulykker. I 2005-2008 har UAG foretaget dybdestudier af 875 dødsulykker. UAG-materialet er nu så omfattende, at det giver mening at gennemføre temaanalyser af materialet. Statens vegvesen har derfor bedt Transportøkonomisk institutt (TØI) foretage en temaanalyse af 130 dødsulykker med vogntog fra 2005-2008. Formålet med projektet har været todelt. For det første at identificere risikofaktorer knyttet til vogntog, herunder vurdere hypoteser om mekanismer bag ulykkerne. For det andet at foretage en metodevurdering af rapporterne som grundlag for undersøgelse af specielle temaer og vurdere hvordan stadig større materiale kan give ny viden. Der er foretaget en litteraturgennemgang af 37 studier af vogntogsulykker. I disse studier er 87 forskellige risikofaktorer blevet identificeret. De 14 vigtigste risikofaktorer er udvalgt til analysen. Det er faktorer, som relaterer sig til vogntoget (fører og køretøj) og faktorer som vejmyndighederne har mulighed for at påvirke. Der er formuleret hypoteser for disse faktorer, og alle de 130 UAG-rapporter er blevet kodet med henblik på at kunne teste disse hypoteser. Vurderingen af rapporternes egnethed som forskningsmateriale er baseret på muligheden for at teste disse hypoteser samt en systematisk gennemlæsning af alle rapporterne. Analysen viser, at 91 af ulykkerne er mødeulykker, seks er krydsulykker, 15 er eneulykker, ni er ulykker i samme retning og ni er ulykker med bløde trafikanter. Vogntoget er bare udløsende part i omkring en tredjedel af ulykkerne. Mødeulykkerne udgør det største problem, men i over 80 % af tilfældene er det modparten, som er den "skyldige" part. 15 af 77 ulykker, hvor modparten er kommet over i vogntogets kørespor, er sandsynligvis selvvalgt. I de 44 ulykker, hvor vogntoget er "skyldig" part, er der identificeret 194 risikofaktorer. Høj hastighed, fejlhandlinger, uopmærksomhed og træthed er de vigtigste risikofaktorer knyttet til chaufføren. Fejl ved last, bremser og dæk samt blindzone er de vigtigste faktorer relateret til køretøjet, mens faste genstande og glat føre er de vigtigste faktorer relateret til vejen. UAG-rapporterne kan med visse forbehold anvendes som forskningsmaterialet. Materialet giver mere dokumenteret indsigt i hvilke faktorer, som bidrager til trafikulykkerne end den normale ulykkesstatistik. Hovedindvendingerne er, at det er en dyr form for dataindsamling, at data samles ind uden konkrete problemstillinger som skal belyses og endelig kan der stilles spørgsmål ved om materialet giver grundlag for generalisering. Mere standardisering af rapporterne, mere fuldstændig udfyldninger og systematisk kodning af alle rapporterne vil øge rapporternes brugbarhed.
De største byområdene i Norge (særlig Osloområdet) har til dels betydelige problemer knyttet til transport Problemene er komplekse og krever et sett av virkemidler for å kunne bli løst på en tilfredsstillende måte Disposisjon for innlegget Generelt om bypolitikk Ny politikk om vegprising Muligheter for lokal tilslutning Virkninger av vegprising Avsluttende merknader
AbstractThe union between Sweden and Norway was established in 1814 as a consequence of royal conquest in the wake of the European turbulence of the Napoleonic wars, and was liquidated peacefully in 1905 after a Nor-wegian proclamation and subsequent negotiations. The peaceful liquidation after negotiation came about after a decision which in Norway was described as the King's abdication and in Sweden as a Norwegian coup d'état. There is a century later a shimmer of self-evidence over this peaceful liquidation in 1905. However, against the backdrop of the widely different opinions about how and why the union was liquidated, this view of self-evidence can be questioned. Swedish historiography has to a very small degree dealt with the union, as if its destiny was a stain on a proud national history and has therefore circumvented it in a kind of bypass operation. In Norwegian historiography much more attention has been paid to the union. The break-up from the union has been seen as a confirmation of the Norwegian nation in a view on history where 1905 was pre-programmed already in 1814. Many even date the independence to 1905, despite the fact that already from 1814 onwards it was a union be-tween two autonomous states. The image has been mediated of a teleological development, of a predetermined history of destiny. In the Norwegian case this destiny means a Sonderweg determined by external forces but with 17 May (the day of the adoption of the Con-stitution in 1814) rather than 14 January (the day of the Kiel Peace in 1814) and 7 June (the day of the Norwegian proclamation of the liquidation of the union in 1905) (as well as 8 May 1945) as milestones on a road which despite the external pressure at the end was staked out by the inherent force of the Norwegian people. There is a lack of a coherent macro historical perspective, which does not teleologically try to inscribe 1905 in the earlier history of the union, a perspective which tries to pay attention to the openness and the alternatives in the development from 1814 onwards, instead of going backwards from 1905 and searching for confirmation of what really happened also necessarily had to happen. The article argues for such a perspective.Keywords: Union Sweden-Norway, 1905, 1814,history and telelogy, nationalism, democracy,Norwegian independence
Forståelse for transportutviklingens langsiktige utvikling og dynamikken i tidsforløpet krever tilgang på relevante tidsserier og egnet litteratur – både faglig, politisk og annen. Jeg har nå laget en transportdatabase som omfatter årene 1900-2000 for de viktigste transportstrømmene. Et manuskript som omfatter databasen og analyser av utviklingen, holder på å bli gjort ferdig. Manuskriptet har 17 kapitler, og et sammendrag av de tre første kapitlene danner rammen for innlegget. Gjennom århundret har mobiliteten innenlands (persontransport) steget dramatisk fra et nærmest usynlig nivå ved inngangen til 1900. Nå kan det se ut til at denne mobiliteten har nådd et maksimumsnivå. Transportintensiteten (godstransport), har hatt et stabilt forløp gjennom det meste av århundret, men steg sterkt på grunn av gass- og oljetransporter inn til Norge fra 1980-årene. Nå kan det se ut til at transportintensiteten kan være på veg nedover.
This dissertation examines uses of history and expressions of cultural memory in Norwegian black metal. Formed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Norwegian black metal seemed at odds with many of the stereotypes of Norway. The genre is an extreme style of heavy metal music that has been associated with burning churches, desecrating graves, and committing murders. Yet, Norway is often perceived as wealthy with sublime natural beauty and high levels of equality. Since the late 1990s, Norwegian black metal has increasingly received positive recognition and support from Norwegian government agencies and cultural institutions who have deemed this style of music a cultural product of Norway. In exploring the relationship between Norwegian black metal and Norway, two primary questions are asked: what makes Norwegian black metal 'Norwegian' and what are its influences? To answer these questions, a theoretical approach based on Astrid Erll's cultural memory complex is used. Included in this cultural memory complex are notions of individual and collective memory, both of which include concepts of nationalism as outlined by Benedict Anderson and Michael Billig. The source base for this dissertation includes the musical releases of over five hundred Norwegian black metal bands which were gathered and analyzed. Three primary categories, with corresponding subcategories, were identified to account for the ways Norwegian black metal bands have used history and expressed cultural memory over a twenty-five-year period from 1988 to 2013. This dissertation shows that Norwegian black metal has made frequent use of history and has actively negotiated parts of the identity-making process from nineteenth-century Norway. In connecting to Norwegian identity in such a way, these bands link to historically construed notions of likhet and egalitarian individualism as identified by the Norwegian anthropologists Marianne Gullestad and Thomas Hylland Eriksen. They actively reproduce many of the same essentialized notions of Norwegian identity that create and maintain ethnic boundaries on Norwegian identity. By using history and expressing cultural memory in the way that they do, Norwegian black metal bands communicate that they are firmly Norwegian while, at the same time, reinforcing ethnocentric notions of Norwegian identity.
