In the 12th century, the Curonians dwelt in the east Baltic region between the Rīga area in the north and Klaipėda in the south. They reached the peak of their economic, political and cultural achievements in the 11th century and the first half of the 12th century. The roots of piracy as a phenomenon have a social character. The most active period of the Curonian Vikings begins in around the mid-tenth century, and lasts until the arrival of the Germans in the 13th century. The well-organised piracy of the Curonians became dangerous to navigation on an important maritime trading route along the east Baltic coast. The Curonians attacked traders' boats, robbed coastal churches, devastated Danish and Swedish coastal areas, and even stayed for a while. In the times of the Teutonic Order, in periods of diplomatic and military conflict or trading competition, even officials did not avoid robbery at sea. The Palanga coastal population used to plunder shipwrecked boats, and went marauding in coastal waters until the middle of the 18th century.
In the 12th century, the Curonians dwelt in the east Baltic region between the Rīga area in the north and Klaipėda in the south. They reached the peak of their economic, political and cultural achievements in the 11th century and the first half of the 12th century. The roots of piracy as a phenomenon have a social character. The most active period of the Curonian Vikings begins in around the mid-tenth century, and lasts until the arrival of the Germans in the 13th century. The well-organised piracy of the Curonians became dangerous to navigation on an important maritime trading route along the east Baltic coast. The Curonians attacked traders' boats, robbed coastal churches, devastated Danish and Swedish coastal areas, and even stayed for a while. In the times of the Teutonic Order, in periods of diplomatic and military conflict or trading competition, even officials did not avoid robbery at sea. The Palanga coastal population used to plunder shipwrecked boats, and went marauding in coastal waters until the middle of the 18th century.
The article discuses the problem that was recently raised in the Lithuanian historical literature & public discourse by G. Beresnevieius, A. Bumblauskas, S. C. Rowell: was the medieval Lithuanian state (Grand Duchy of Lithuania; GDL) an empire? Important reason for the emergence of this problem was the partial rehabilitation of the very concept of "empire" due to the dissolution of the the USSR (reputed as "last empire") & the search for common legacies by the historians of the countries involved in the construction of the European Union as a transnational political community. There were important reasons for the traditional historiography to abstain from the use of the concepts of "empire" & "imperialism" in the work on GDL. For Non-Marxist Russian historians, GDL was simply another Russian state, so there could not be Russian imperialism against Russians. For Marxist historians, imperialism was a phase in the "capitalist formation," immediately preceding the socialist revolution & bound to the specific period of world history, so the research on precapitalist empires & imperialism was suspect of anachronism. For the opposite reason, deriving from the hermeneutic methodology, the talk about medieval Lithuanian empire & imperialism was an anachronism for Non-Marxist Polish & German historians too, because they considered as Empires only polities that claimed to be successors to Roman Empire: the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation, Byzantine Empire, Moscow Empire. Lithuanian political elite never raised such claims, although theory of the Lithuanian descent from Romans (Legend of Palemon) could be used for this goal. Starting from path-breaking work by S. N. Eisenstadt "The Political Systems of Empires" (1963), comparative politics, history, sociology, anthropology & theory of international relations witnessed the emergence of the field of interdisciplinary studies that can be described as comparative studies of empires & imperialism. Second section of the paper provides the survey of the theoretical work in this field in search of the ideas useful for the analysis of the peculiarities of the medieval Lithuanian state. This survey includes into its scope the work of S. N. Eisenstadt, I. Wallerstein, A. Motyl, B. Buzan, R. Little, A. Watson, M. Beissinger, Ch.Tilly & M. Doyle, whose book "Empires" is considered as the most important contribution to the theorizing of empires & imperialism up to this date. Adapted from the source document.
In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]
In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]
In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]
In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]
The paper explores the epistemic fruitfulness of the contemporary theories of modern relations for historical research about the relations between premodern polities. The author suggests to replace the concepts of "international system" and "international society" by the broader notions of "interpolity system" and that of "interpolity society". It is demonstrated that A. Wendt's thesis that in the premodern times international politics was dominated by the Hobbesian culture of anarchy disregards historical evidence about the "Lockean" realities of the dynastic politics in the medieval Europe and other places. The author also criticise H. Bull's concept of international society because of its assumption that Westphalian peace treaty of 1648 was the date of birth of the international law and international society as historical reality. Paper includes a case study about the changing roles and challenges of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) as the subject of interpolity relations in XIII-XV centuries. It focuses on the rise of GDL from the polity playing the role of the barrier (but not that of buffer) polity, separating Central European and Eastern European interpolity systems and belonging to both of them, to the regional empire and suzerain polity of the Eastern European interpolity system by the early XVth century. However, Lithuanian hegemony in Eastern Europe lasted only very few years. After 1430, the Eastern European interpolity system was about to transform itself from the suzerain polity system into a multipolar sovereign interpolity system of the type that consolidated in the Central and Western Europe after 1648 and survived for 300 years. However, the political leadership of GDL failed to meet the challenge to maintain an emerging multipolar balance of power in this system. Adapted from the source document.
The article deals with the changing basic upbringing and confrontation in the second half of the 20th century. People understood the meaning and influence of education even in old times. The focal attention for a long time was paid to boys' upbringing and teaching, but secondary and, mostly, non-formal - to girls. In ancient countries boys were taught to be noble, in Middle Ages - courageous knights and devotional Christians, in newest ages national upbringing becomes an important factor. The 20th century and especially its second half were distinguished by upbringing variety: long-drawn-out nationalism or softer, more human form of nationality, buildup of homo sovieticum and Anglo-Saxon civil upbringing, liberalism and democracy that spread from Western countries after World War II. In the 20th century Lithuania had to experience upbringing accents and their changes.
The article deals with the changing basic upbringing and confrontation in the second half of the 20th century. People understood the meaning and influence of education even in old times. The focal attention for a long time was paid to boys' upbringing and teaching, but secondary and, mostly, non-formal - to girls. In ancient countries boys were taught to be noble, in Middle Ages - courageous knights and devotional Christians, in newest ages national upbringing becomes an important factor. The 20th century and especially its second half were distinguished by upbringing variety: long-drawn-out nationalism or softer, more human form of nationality, buildup of homo sovieticum and Anglo-Saxon civil upbringing, liberalism and democracy that spread from Western countries after World War II. In the 20th century Lithuania had to experience upbringing accents and their changes.
The article deals with the changing basic upbringing and confrontation in the second half of the 20th century. People understood the meaning and influence of education even in old times. The focal attention for a long time was paid to boys' upbringing and teaching, but secondary and, mostly, non-formal - to girls. In ancient countries boys were taught to be noble, in Middle Ages - courageous knights and devotional Christians, in newest ages national upbringing becomes an important factor. The 20th century and especially its second half were distinguished by upbringing variety: long-drawn-out nationalism or softer, more human form of nationality, buildup of homo sovieticum and Anglo-Saxon civil upbringing, liberalism and democracy that spread from Western countries after World War II. In the 20th century Lithuania had to experience upbringing accents and their changes.
The article deals with the changing basic upbringing and confrontation in the second half of the 20th century. People understood the meaning and influence of education even in old times. The focal attention for a long time was paid to boys' upbringing and teaching, but secondary and, mostly, non-formal - to girls. In ancient countries boys were taught to be noble, in Middle Ages - courageous knights and devotional Christians, in newest ages national upbringing becomes an important factor. The 20th century and especially its second half were distinguished by upbringing variety: long-drawn-out nationalism or softer, more human form of nationality, buildup of homo sovieticum and Anglo-Saxon civil upbringing, liberalism and democracy that spread from Western countries after World War II. In the 20th century Lithuania had to experience upbringing accents and their changes.
In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.
In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.