Many books, both scholarly and popular, consider how wars begin. There has also been a large number written on the question of limiting war in general and creating peace. Yet the question of how specific wars end has received far less attention. Except for memoirs and historical accounts of final battles and peace negotiations, it is difficult to find more than a handful of general works on war deescalation and termination.
Most analyses of American elections have treated wars as special events, including them in the analysis, but seeking only to make conclusions specific to each war. This article examines the last five American wars statistically and historically, seeking to demonstrate that, in general, wars have caused elected leaders associated with American entry into battle to lose ground in wartime elections. Both the statistical results and the historical commentary support the central hypothesis and suggest some important related conclusions: Changes in short-run military outlays appear to be the most effective measure of war's impact on the nation; presidents have been more subject to the effects of war than have members of Congress; and wars have influenced postwar elections at least as much as elections during wartime.
Historiographical advances in recent decades have emphasized increasingly the twentieth-century sources of American hegemony in Cuba. Two specific periods have served as the focus of these arguments: the years of the military occupation (1899-1902) and the decades of the Plattist republic, namely those years when Cuba was linked to the United States by virtue of the Permanent and Reciprocity treaties (1903-34). During these years, Cuban dependency certainly deepened and the character of the island acquired its definitive features as a client state. These twentieth-century developments, however, originated in nineteenth-century antecedents that contributed decisively to shaping events after 1895.
Building on Neil Fligstein's (1990) analysis of growth, 1939-1959, by adding measures of defense, it is suggested that defense spending had a large effect on corporate growth. A variety of government incentives supported such growth. It is concluded that organizational growth is a temporal process requiring historically specific analysis. Growth in the 1939-1959 period is attributed to the magnitude of output required during WWII & the Korean War, the federal government's reliance on private firms to supply wartime necessities, & investment incentives. 3 Tables, 23 References. Adapted from the source document.
A DISCUSSION OF THE UNFINISHED BUSINESS OF SECURITY REMINDS ONE THAT THE NEW WORLD ORDER HAS BY NO MEANS ELIMINATED THE NEED FOR ARMED FORCES. HOWEVER, THE OPPORTUNITY IS AT HAND TO REDEFINE US POLICY TOWARDS THE LATIN AMERICAN MILITARIES. THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES THE ROLE OF US POLICY AND CONCLUDES THAT THE US NEEDS TO SUSTAIN ITS PROGRESS THROUGH A POLICY OF CONSTRUCTIVE ENGAGEMENT WITH BOTH THE LATIN AMERICAN CIVILIANS AND MILITARY.
THE CHANGING PARAMETERS OF GLOBAL POLITICS PRESENT MANY CHALLENGES FOR THE UNITED STATES AS IT CONSTRUCTS A POLICY FOR LATIN AMERICA FASHIONED TO FIT THE NEW WORLD. THIS ARTICLE EXAMINES THE EFFECTS AND THE LEGACIES OF THE COLD WAR, HOW TO MANAGE CHANGE, THE MILITARY IN MODERN LATIN AMERICA, AND, OBSTACLES AND OPPORTUNITIES. IT CONCLUDES THAT ULTIMATELY, IT WILL BE MEMBERS OF THE LATIN AMERICAN SOCIETIES THEMSELVES WHO WILL DETERMINE THE SUCCESS OF A PARTNERSHIP WITH THE UNITED STATES BASED ON ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL REFORMS.
THE REVOLUTION IN MASS COMMUNICATIONS HAS REDUCED OLD PROBLEMS, BUT HAS ALSO HELPED CREATE A HOST OF NEWER OBSTACLES TO DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT IN LATIN AMERICA. THIS STUDY DIVIDES THE THREATS TO DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT INTO SEVERAL BROAD CATEGORIES. THE FIRST IS THE REGION'S OWN HISTORY AND TRADITIONS. THE SECOND IS ITS LONG HISTORY OF CLASS AND CASTE DIVISIONS. A THIRD OBSTACLE IS THE CURRENT PROFOUND SOCIAL CRISIS. IT CONCLUDES THAT IF BOTH CIVILIAN AND MILITARY LEADERS PERSIST IN THE PRACTICES WHICH HAVE DISCREDITED THEMSELVES AND THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND CONTRIBUTED TO PUBLIC DESPAIR, AND IF THE LARGER INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY IS UNABLE OR UNWILLING TO HELP THE REGION DEAL WITH ITS PRESSING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS THEN THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS DEMOCRACY MAY PROVE UNSUSTAINABLE.
In: Armed forces & society: official journal of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society : an interdisciplinary journal, Band 9, Heft 4, S. 647-663
To determine if fictional portrayal of the military reflects & helps shape public attitudes, 107 novels written about the US military since WWII are analyzed. Sentiment was primarily antimilitary following WWII, but became increasingly promilitary over time, until the Vietnam War, when antimilitary sentiment reemerged; the latter view dominates current fiction. Similar patterns are seen in literary views of military individuals & in PO. Individual time frames & works are examined, & a current trend of fading antimilitarism & its possible effects are noted. 8 Tables, 6 Figures, 2 Appendixes. J. Cannon.
Examines emergence of input into planning by assessing the growth of specific competencies and responsibilities of the 22 regions, and the role of the regional offices of the Ministry of Environment.
UNDERSTANDING BOTH THE NATURE OF DOMESTIC POLITICAL TURBULENCE POSSESSING AN ARMED COMPONENT AND THE SPECIFIC INDUCEMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS PLACED UPON ANY PEACEKEEPING INTERVENTIONARY POWER IS THE FIRST STEP IN HELPING THE LEADERS OF THE UNITED STATES DEVELOP APPROPRIATE POLITICO-MILITARY DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES, EFFECTIVE POLICY FORMULATIONS, AND SUCCESSFUL EXECUTIONS OF THESE POLICIES. THE LEADERS OF THE U.S. MUST ALSO FOCUS ON LEARNING FROM THE EXPERIENCES OF SOMALIA, HAITI, AND BOSNIA. BY USING THIS PAST EXPERIENCE, THE FUTURE CONFLICTS THAT WILL ARISE CAN BE SAFELY NAVIGATED.
IN THE YEARS OF FRATRICIDAL CIVIL WAR SINCE 1993, NEARLY 50,000 ALGERIANS HAVE DIED. BOTH SIDES HAVE THEIR SUPPORTERS OUTSIDE ALGERIA, AND THE PROSPECT OF GLOBAL INTERVENTION NOW LOOMS AS FRANCE, THE UNITED STATES, WESTERN EUROPE, AND THE ARAB-MUSLIM WORLD ARE BEING LURED TO THE CONFLICT. THIS ARTICLE EXPLAINS BOTH THE LONG-TERM HISTORICAL AND THE MORE COMPLEX IMMEDIATE REASONS FOR THE EMERGENCE OF THIS DANGEROUS WAR ON EUROPE'S DOORSTEP. IT ALSO EVALUATES THE AIMS AND METHODS OF ALGERIAN ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM AS A POLITICAL MOVEMENT. SPECIFIC ATTENTION IS PAID TO THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE CONFLICT AND CONSEQUENTLY THE POTENTIAL FOR REMEDIAL INTERVENTION AS THE CIVIL WAR REACHES A DEADLOCK. IN CONCLUSION, POSSIBLE DIPLOMATIC SOLUTIONS ARE SUGGESTED.
FOUR TYPES OF REGIMES OF HISTORIC IMPORTANCE APPEARED IN BETWEEN THE TWO WORLD WARS: PLURALIST DEMOCRACY, SOCIAL DEMOCRACY, TRADITIONAL DICTATORSHIP, AND FASCISM. THE AUTHOR ATTEMPTS TO EXPLAIN WHY PLURALIST DEMOCRACY WAS NOT POSSIBLE WHERE IT HAD NOT PREVIOUSLY BEEN ESTABLISHED, AND TO IDENTIFY THE CONDITIONS THAT LED TO SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC AND FASCIST REGIMES. IN DEVELOPING AN EXPLANATION OF THE REGIMES THAT APPEARED BETWEEN THE WARS, THE AUTHOR CHALLENGES A NUMBER OF WIDELY ACCEPTED INTERPRETATIONS OF FASCISM THAT ARE BASED ON SOCIAL STRUCTURE, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, LEADERSHIP, POLARIZATION, AND IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICT.
THE AUTHOR SUGGESTS THAT THE MODERN ERA HAS EXPERIENCED SEVEN GREAT WAVES OF REVOLTS. THIS IS NOW SEEN AS INCOMPLETE, WE NOW STAND AT THE CUSP OF THE EIGHTH WAVE OF MODERN REVOLT. INSURGENCY HAS BEEN ONE OF THE MOST PERVASIVE TYPES OF CONFLICT THROUGHOUT HISTORY AND TODAY IS EPIDEMIC, AS IT CONTINUES TO EVOLVE FROM IT'S COLD WAR FORM. FACTORS WILL DRIVE OR FORCE THE EVOLUTION OF INSURGENCY. INTERNATIONALLY, THE MOST OBVIOUS IS THE DEMISE OF THE SOVIET UNION. CHARTING THE DIRECTION OF THIS CHANGE IS COMPLEX. INSURGENCY IS BORN, LIVES AND DIES IN IN A SPECIFIC STRATEGIC, HISTORICAL, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTEXT. IN THE BROADEST SENSE, IT'S ENVIRONMENT IS OFTEN THE THIRD WORLD. IRONICALLY, THE INCREASING CAPACITY OF THE THIRD WORLD GOVERNMENTS TO PROVIDE GOODS AND SERVICES TO THEIR POPULATIONS CAN ALSO LEAD TO VIOLENCE, MODERNIZATION TENDS TO DESTROY TRADITIONAL VALUE SYTEMS WITHOUT A FULLY DEVELOPED AND APPEALING REPLACEMENT. THE PHYSICAL ENLARGEMENT OF THE THIRD WORLD CHANGED THE CONTEXT OF INSURGENCY. PUT SIMPLY, MUCH OF WHAT WAS ONCE LABELED THE "SECOND WORLD" - THE FORMER SOVIET BLOC - BECAME PART OF THE THIRD WORLD. ALSO DISCUSSED ARE THE TWO DOMINANT FORMS OF INSURGENCIES, AND A CONCLUSION ON WHAT ACTIONS CAN BE TAKEN TO DIFFUSE FUTURE CONFLICTS.
THE FIRST PART OF THIS ARTICLE OUTLINED THE HISTORY AND THE GUIDING MILITARY CONCEPTS OF RENAMO (RESISTENCIA NACIONAL MOCAMBICANA) AND RELATED THE WAR OF DESTABILIZATION AGAINST MOZAMBIQUE. THIS CONCLUDING PART ANALYZES DESTABILIZATION AS A SPECIFIC KIND OF WAR WITH ITS ROOTS IN THE COUNTER-INSURGENCY CONCEPT OF "PSEUDO UNITS" WHICH THE BRITISH DEVELOPED IN KENYA. THIS ARTICLE WILL DISCUSS THE KIND OF MECHANISMS AT WORK IN THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS AT THE LOCAL LEVEL AND THE RISK OF A SECOND WAVE OF DESTABILIZATION.