Suchergebnisse

زمینه و هدف: کمبود مواد غذایی، تغییرات اقلیمی و دیگر عوامل سبب شده تا تولید گیاهان تغییر شکل‌یافته ژنتیکی (محصولات تراریخته) از دهه 90 میلادی مورد توجه قرار گیرد. تولید این گیاهان همان‌گونه که موجب امیدواری در رفع گرسنگی بود، به دلیل تأثیر احتمالی بر محیط زیست موج نگرانی را نیز برانگیخت. هدف از این تحقیق، بررسی تعهدات زیست‌محیطی دولت‌ها در حوزه محصولات تراریخته در پرتو اصول حقوق بین‌الملل محیط زیست، اتحادیه اروپا و ایران است. مواد و روش‌ها: نوشتار حاضر به شیوه توصیفی ـ تحلیلی ابتدا اصول پیش‌گفته حاکم در حقوق بین‌الملل محیط زیست را بررسی می‌کند تا دریابد تعهدات زیست‌محیطی دولت‌ها درباره محصولات تراریخته از نظر اصول حقوق بین‌الملل چگونه است و سپس رویکرد اختصاصی اتحادیه اروپا را بررسی و تطبیق داده و بالاخره گذرا این وضعیت را در ایران مرور می‌کند. یافته‌ها: اتحادیه اروپا برخلاف ایالات متحده دیدگاهی احتیاط‌آمیز توأم با سخت‌گیری در حمایت از مصرف‌کننده و محیط زیست پیش گرفته که ریشه در اصول کلی حقوق بین‌الملل محیط زیست دارد. اصولی مانند توسعه پایدار، اقدام احتیاطی، ارزیابی و اطلاع‌رسانی که به جمع رعایت مصالح دولت‌ها در دستیابی به توسعه و پیشرفت و حفظ محیط زیست می‌انجامد، در حالی که در ایران از سویی قوانین حمایتی از محیط زیست به صورت کارآمد تصویب نشده است و یا این‌که در برخی موارد محیط زیست و حمایت از آن مغفول مانده است. ملاحظات اخلاقی: در تمام مراحل نگارش پژوهش حاضر، ضمن رعایت اصالت متون، صداقت و امانتداری، رعایت شده است. نتیجه‌گیری: نتایج این جستار نشان می‌دهد که دولت‌ها در خصوص محصولات تراریخته متعهد به رعایت اصول کلی یا عرفی توسعه پایدار، اقدام احتیاطی، ارزیابی و اطلاع‌رسانی بوده و رعایت اصول مزبور بهترین راهکار جهت صیانت از حقوق مصرف‌کننده و حمایت از محیط زیست است. ; Background and Aim: Food scarcity, climate change and other factors have led to the production of genetically modified crops (transgenic crops) since the 1990s. The production of these plants, as they had hoped to eliminate hunger, also raised concerns about the potential impact on the environment. The purpose of this study is to examine the Governments' Environmental Obligations on Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) in the light of the International Environmetal Law, European Union and Iran. Materials and Methods: The present paper is descriptive-analytical paper and firstly examines the aforementioned principles of international environmental law in order to understand what is the environmental commitment and obligation of governments in the process of cultivation and supply for transgenic products from the perspective of international law. Then, it examines and applies the EU-specific approach and finally reviews this situation in Iran. Findings: The European Union, unlike United States, has taken a cautious approach to consumer and environmental protection. This approach is rooted in the general principles of international environmental law. Principles such as sustainable development, precautionary principle and the principle of notification that bring together the interests of governments in achieving development, improvement and environmental protection, while in Iran,It has not been enacted environmental laws effectively on the GMO or in some cases the environment and its protection have been neglected. Ethical Considerations: In order to organize this research, while observing the authenticity of the texts, honesty and fidelity have been observed. Conclusion: The results show that governments are committed to adhering to the general or customary principles of sustainable development, precautionary principle and the principle of notification in the process of cultivating and supplying for Genetically Modified Organism (GMO), and adhering to these principles is the best way to safeguard consumer rights. Cite this article as: Pouresmaeili A, keykhosravi M, Vaezi Kakhki MR. The Studying of Governments' Environmental Obligations on Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) in the light of the International Environmetal Law, European Union and Iran. Bioethics Journal 2020; 10(35): e16.

زمینه و هدف: آموزش علاوه بر این‌که یکی از مصادیق مهم حقوق بشر است، ابزاری مهم برای تحقق سایر مصادیق حقوق بشر نیز به شمار می‌رود. تضمین و اجرای حق آموزش مقدمه تضمین و اجرای سایر مصادیق حقوق بشر می‌باشد. حق بر آموزش ابتدعاً در قامت یک اصل کلی و منعطف که فاقد تعهدات حقوقی مشخص و الزام‌آور بود، در قالب اعلامیه جهانی حقوق بشر پذیرفته شد. به علت تفاوت‌های بنیادینی که در نظام‌های حقوقی ـ سیاسی دولت‌ها وجود داشت، توسعه و تقویت حق مزبور به نظام‌های حقوقی منطقه‌ای و داخلی سپرده شد. مواد و روش‌ها: در این مطالعه با روش تحلیلی ـ توصیفی، ابتدا مفهوم شهروندی و اهمیت آموزش بحث و بررسی خواهد شد. پس از مشخص‌شدن وضعیت متغیر مزبور، اهداف فرآیند آموزشی و مفهوم «حق بر آموزش» برای تبیین دقیق‌تر چارچوب کلی مسأله اصلی پژوهش حاضر و سپس آموزش دموکراسی، تسامح و تساهل به عنوان معیار اصلی برای ترویج شهروندی دموکراتیک مورد بحث و بررسی قرار خواهد گرفت. ملاحظات اخلاقی: در تمام مراحل نگارش پژوهش حاضر، ضمن رعایت اصالت متون، صداقت و امانتداری رعایت شده است. یافته‌ها: در چارچوب حق بر توانمندسازی، آموزش سازکاری است که با استفاده از آن، افراد می‌توانند ابزارهای لازم را برای مشارکت کامل در جوامع به دست آورند. آموزش نقش بسیار مهمی را در توانمندسازی اقشار آسیب‌پذیر، ترویج حقوق بشر و دموکراسی، فراهم کردن زمینه‌های لازم برای توسعه پایدار و. ایفا می‌کند، در نتیجه آموزش به عنوان یکی از بهترین سرمایه‌گذاری‌های مادی و معنوی محسوب می‌شود که یک دولت می‌تواند در راستای توسعه، پیشرفت و رفاه شهروندان خود، انجام دهد. نتیجه‌گیری: تحولات حق بر آموزش و اجرا و تضمین آن در چارچوب دکترین شهروندی دموکراتیک و در نتیجه، ارتباط آن با توسعه و تقویت مفهوم حکومت قانون و عناصر تشکیل‌دهنده آن، در فرآیند تربیت شهروندان پایبند به دموکراسی و ایجاد یک نظام حقوقی ـ سیاسی که اصلی‌ترین و کارآمدترین ضمانت اجرای آن فشار واقعی افکار عمومی و مطالبه‌گری عموم مردم خواهد بود، نقش اساسی ایفا کند. ; Background and Aim: Education is not only one of the important examples of human rights but also an important tool for the realization of other examples of human rights. The guarantee and enforcement of this right is a prelude to the guarantee and enforcement of other instances of human rights. The right to education was initially recognized as a general and flexible principle that had no clear and binding legal obligations under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Due to the fundamental differences that existed in the legal-political systems of governments, the development and strengthening of this right was entrusted to regional and domestic legal systems. Materials and Methods: In this study with analytical-descriptive method, first the concept of citizenship and the importance of education will be discussed. After determining the status of this variable, the objectives of the educational process and the concept of "right to education" will be considered to explain more precisely the general framework of the main issue of the present study. In the third step, the teaching of democracy, tolerance and tolerance as the main criteria for promoting democratic citizenship will be discussed. Ethical Considerations: In order to organize this research, while observing the authenticity of the texts, honesty and fidelity have been observed. Findings: Within the framework of the right to empowerment, education is a mechanism by which individuals can acquire the tools necessary for full participation in society. Education plays a very important role in empowering the vulnerable, promoting human rights and democracy, providing the necessary conditions for sustainable development, and so on. As a result, education is considered as one of the best materials and spiritual investments that a government can make for the development, progress and welfare of its citizens. Conclusion: Developments in the right to education and implementation and its guarantee within the framework of the doctrine of democratic citizenship and, consequently, its relationship with the development and strengthening of the concept of rule of law and its constituent elements can in the process of educating citizens committed to democracy and creating a legal-political system. The main and most effective guarantee of its implementation will be the real pressure of public opinion and public demand, to play a key role. Please cite this article as: Rostami S, Soleymanzadeh T. A Rethinking of the Concept of Right to Education in the Light of Democratic Citizenship. Bioethics Journal, Special Issue on Bioethics and Citizenship Rights 2020; 173-186.

Backgrounds and Aims: Using Geographical Information System (GIS) can decreases the burden of road traffic injuries effectively by identification of hot spot to modification in hazardous areas. The aim of the study was determining geographical distribution of human risk factors associated with road traffic injuries by using Geographical Information System (GIS) in Iran. Materials and Methods: The national database of road traffic injuries registered by the Iranian traffic Police (Rahvar NAJA) was used. The human risk factors were investigated by recognition of the hazardous points and geographical distribution of associated risk factors. The Hot Spot Analysis and Map clustering approaches were employed to meet the objectives. Results: The mean age of injured subjects was 34 years and the most affected age group was 20-39 years. Death and injury occurrence within out of cities ways were 0.3 % and 28% respectively. Geographical distribution of risk factors also showed that roads of Northern provinces i.e. (Gilaan and Mazandaran) were the hazardous rising as well as Qazvin to Rasht and Qom to Tehran roads. Sistan and Balochestan Provinces and Tehran had the highest (4.8%) and the lowest (0.1%) rates of road traffic injuries leading to death in the country. Conclusions: Northern provinces and its leading axes by hazardous rising and Sistan and Balochestan province with fatal injuries need to identify the cause of injuries' and, if necessary, more tighten regulations and more controls by the traffic police must be applied. REFERENCESPeden M, Scurfield R, Sleet D, Mohan D Hyder A A, Jarawan E . (2004).World report on road traffic injury prevention: World Health Organization Geneva. 2004.Kopits E, Cropper M. Traffic fatalities and economic growth. Accid Anal Prev 2005;37(1): 169-78.Channa R, Jaffrani H A, Khan A J, Hasan T, Razzak J A. Transport time to trauma facilities in Karachi: an exploratory study. Int J Emerg Med 2008; 1(3): 201–4. Soori H, Hussain S, Razzak J. Road safety in the Eastern Mediterranean Region–findings from the Global Road Safety Status Report. East Mediterr Health J 2011;17(10):770-6.Soori H. Descriptive study (Chapter 8) in Basic applied epidemiology. Percian text book 2nd edition.Tehran: Arjmand publisher; 2008.Gesler W. The uses of spatial analysis in medical geography: a review. Social Science & Medicine 1986; 23(10): 963-73.Ameratunga S, Hijar M, Norton R. Road-traffic injuries: confronting disparities to address a global-health problem. The Lancet 2006;367(9521): 1533-40.Akbari M, Naghavi M, Soori H. Epidemiology of deaths from injuries in the Islamic Republic of Iran. East Mediterr health J 2006;12(3/4): 382-90.Rasouli M R, Nouri M, Zarei M R. Saadat S, Rahimi-Movaghar V. Comparison of road traffic fatalities and injuries in Iran with other countries. Chin J Traumatol 2008;11(3): 131-4.Ainy E, Soori H, Mahfozphoor S, Movahedinejad AA. Presenting a practical model for governmental political mapping on road traffic injuries in Iran in 2008: a qualitative study. J R Soc Med Sh Rep 2011; 2(10):79.Khorasani-Zavareh D, Mohammadi R., Khankeh H R, Laflamme L, Bikmoradi A, Haglund B J A. The requirements and challenges in preventing of road traffic injury in Iran. A qualitative study. BMC Public Health 2009; 23(9): 486-91.Nantulya V M, Reich M R. The neglected epidemic: road traffic injuries in developing countries. BMJ 2002; 324(7346): 1139-41. Elvik R. Road safety management by objectives: A critical analysis of the Norwegian approach. Accid Anal Prev 2008;40(3): 1115-22.Liang L Y, Mo'soem D, Hua L T. Traffic accident application using geographic information system. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies 2005;6(1): 3574–89.Braddock M, Lapidus G, Cromley E, Cromley R., Burke G, Banco L. Using a geographic information system to understand child pedestrian injury. Am J Public Health. 1994;84(7): 1158-61. Lascala E A, Gerbe D, Gruenewald P J. Demographic and environmental correlates of pedestrian injury collisions: a spatial analysis. Accid Anal Prev 2000;32(5): 651-8.Lightstone A, Dhillon P, Peek-Asa C, Kraus J. A geographic analysis of motor vehicle collisions with child pedestrians in Long Beach, California: comparing intersection and midblock incident locations. Inj Prev 2001;7(2): 155-60.Daum M L, Dorsch W R. Managing Land Use and Institutional Controls with GIS . Journal of Map & Geography Libraries: Advances in Geospatial Information, Collections & Archives2008 ;4(1): 163-73.Erdogan, S, Yilmaz I, Baybura T, Gullu, M. Geographical information systems aided traffic accident analysis system case study: city of Afyonkarahisar. Accid Anal Prev 1998; 40(1): 174-81.Al-Kharusi W. Update on Road Traffic Crashes. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. 2008;466(10): 2457-64.Fars news. Saturday 5th October 2012.Mwatelah J. Application of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to Analyze causes of Road traffic Accidents (RTAs)–case Study of Kenya. International Conference on Spatial Information for Sustainable Development Nairobi, Kenya. 2–5 October 2001.Cusimano MD, Chipman M., Glazier R. H, Rinner C, Marshall S P. Geomatics in injury prevention: the science, the potential and the limitations. Inj Prev 2007;13(1): 51-6.Rezaeian M, Dunn G, St Leger S, Appleby L. Geographical epidemiology, spatial analysis and geographical information systems: a multidisciplinary glossary. J Epidemiol Community Health 2005;61(2): 98-102.