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"This paper aims to contribute both to the establishment of theoretical tools for describing and explaining the evolution of national space policy as well as to the empirical analysis of changing national and multinational security space capabilities in Europe. The theoretical framework proposed below rests on a differentiation of five ideal-type levels of state disposal of technology, indicating a state's position in the order of space powers. These levels of control are utilisation, participation, cooperation, autonomy, and monopoly. The relevance of these levels of control lies in the corresponding distribution of distinct costs (political, socioeconomic and symbolic) and their domestic and/or international repercussions. Variations in national investment and activity across military and dual-use space technologies are caused by three types of variables: 1) the availability and attractiveness of utilisation, participation and cooperation options, 2) the amount of political, socioeconomic, and symbolic costs and 3) the specific validation of these costs on behalf of political decision-makers, reflecting the specific cost sensitivity of a state. Based on this theoretical framework, it is possible to empirically answer a number of questions relating to increasing capacities of European space-faring nations, independent from external, particularly American sources." (author's abstract)

With the rapid rise of competitive space activities within Asia, this study examines the prospects for increasing international cooperation. After discussing relevant conceptual issues, it surveys the space policies particularly of China, India, Japan, and South Korea and examines the skewed patterns of cooperation seen at the international, regional, and bilateral levels. It then analyzes the historical, technology, and political factors that have impeded, especially regional, space cooperation in Asia to date. The study concludes that expanded regional space cooperation is an unlikely near-term outcome, but the paper also argues that the risks entailed in the current situation are growing and that US policy initiatives could make a difference in helping to lead countries out of this dead-end. (J Contemp China/GIGA)