The master's thesis is devoted to the policy of memory in the Russian Federation since the 2000s. The goal of the work was to determine the degree of influence of political elites in the Russian Federation since 2000 on the policy of history in the state and investigate it`s practical expression of this policy in science. The attention is focused on the analysis of the memorial campaign, the significance and influence on the writing of the history of the memorial legislation is considered. Revealed the formation, essence and progress of the ideological basis, which was reflected in the policy of memory. The work covers methodological textbooks which has adopted by the decrees of the President of the Russian Federation. Expounded the comparative analysis of the textbooks written before and after the approval of the manuals on methodological recommendations. The methodological basis of this study is a systematic approach that provides for the disclosure of the structural, functional and regulatory aspects of the subject of study. The structure of these elements makes it possible to characterize the main features and constituent elements of the policy memory in Russia. Structural elements include: character, specifics, functions, subjects of implementation and objects of direction, goals, objectives and forms of implementation of the policy. In carrying out the research, a historical genetic method is used, through which historical phenomena are studied in the course of their development, from origin to end or the present state. The study used a historical-system method through which a deep analysis of entire socio-historical systems was carried out, and were revealed their internal mechanisms of their functioning and development. The application of the sociological method made it possible to reveal the essence of the implementation of the policy of memory in the case of a specific country and a specific example. The novelty of the scientific investigation is that in contemporary historical science, insufficient attention is paid to issues of political regulation and influence as on the history as a science in general, from the side of political elites in Russia. The results of the research showed that history as a science is subordinated to the influence of an antiscientific nature on the part of the state power, which uses history as a means to implement state policy with elements of the personality cult of the president. The work reflects a critical comprehension of the policy pursued regarding the writing of history by political elites and destructive influence on the consciousness of pupils, as well as the entire Russian society, which encounters to the history. The thesis is given according to which the negative impact on science is reflected in the cultural perception of the society of its past.
The master's thesis is devoted to the policy of memory in the Russian Federation since the 2000s. The goal of the work was to determine the degree of influence of political elites in the Russian Federation since 2000 on the policy of history in the state and investigate it`s practical expression of this policy in science. The attention is focused on the analysis of the memorial campaign, the significance and influence on the writing of the history of the memorial legislation is considered. Revealed the formation, essence and progress of the ideological basis, which was reflected in the policy of memory. The work covers methodological textbooks which has adopted by the decrees of the President of the Russian Federation. Expounded the comparative analysis of the textbooks written before and after the approval of the manuals on methodological recommendations. The methodological basis of this study is a systematic approach that provides for the disclosure of the structural, functional and regulatory aspects of the subject of study. The structure of these elements makes it possible to characterize the main features and constituent elements of the policy memory in Russia. Structural elements include: character, specifics, functions, subjects of implementation and objects of direction, goals, objectives and forms of implementation of the policy. In carrying out the research, a historical genetic method is used, through which historical phenomena are studied in the course of their development, from origin to end or the present state. The study used a historical-system method through which a deep analysis of entire socio-historical systems was carried out, and were revealed their internal mechanisms of their functioning and development. The application of the sociological method made it possible to reveal the essence of the implementation of the policy of memory in the case of a specific country and a specific example. The novelty of the scientific investigation is that in contemporary historical science, insufficient attention is paid to issues of political regulation and influence as on the history as a science in general, from the side of political elites in Russia. The results of the research showed that history as a science is subordinated to the influence of an antiscientific nature on the part of the state power, which uses history as a means to implement state policy with elements of the personality cult of the president. The work reflects a critical comprehension of the policy pursued regarding the writing of history by political elites and destructive influence on the consciousness of pupils, as well as the entire Russian society, which encounters to the history. The thesis is given according to which the negative impact on science is reflected in the cultural perception of the society of its past.
In the Master's paper the analysis of the import, export and transit flows of goods in Lithuania during the period from 1 January 2006 till 30 June 2007 is performed. The calls to Information Technology Service Centre regarding the problems of the systems servicing these flows is analysed. Some conclusions and proposals are submitted. The effective use of information technology (IT) plays an important role in the activities of the Lithuania's customs system. Currently the issues of a faster creation of an EU-wide e-Customs, more efficient use of IT in performing the statistical analysis of the import, export and transit flows of goods or in processing customs documents have been seriously considered both nationally and internationally. The goal of this Master's paper is to perform the analysis of information flows of the customs documents processing, to identify the problems as well as to present some proposals for the solution to these problems. The Master's paper consists of three parts. In the first part a brief overview of the customs' history in Lithuania is presented, the main current functions and activities of the Lithuanian customs are described and much attention is paid to the role of the Customs Information System Centre in the Lithuanian customs system. The second part is devoted to the survey of the import, export and transit processes of goods as well as the use of IT in the Lithuanian customs. In the third part a thorough statistical analysis of information flows of the customs documents processing is performed and the problems are identified. At the end of the paper some suggestions concerning the development of the Customs activities and more efficient use of IT are presented. Fifty sources of information were used for writing this paper: laws and other legal acts of the Republic of Lithuania, EU legislation, books and articles in the Lithuanian and English languages.
In the Master's paper the analysis of the import, export and transit flows of goods in Lithuania during the period from 1 January 2006 till 30 June 2007 is performed. The calls to Information Technology Service Centre regarding the problems of the systems servicing these flows is analysed. Some conclusions and proposals are submitted. The effective use of information technology (IT) plays an important role in the activities of the Lithuania's customs system. Currently the issues of a faster creation of an EU-wide e-Customs, more efficient use of IT in performing the statistical analysis of the import, export and transit flows of goods or in processing customs documents have been seriously considered both nationally and internationally. The goal of this Master's paper is to perform the analysis of information flows of the customs documents processing, to identify the problems as well as to present some proposals for the solution to these problems. The Master's paper consists of three parts. In the first part a brief overview of the customs' history in Lithuania is presented, the main current functions and activities of the Lithuanian customs are described and much attention is paid to the role of the Customs Information System Centre in the Lithuanian customs system. The second part is devoted to the survey of the import, export and transit processes of goods as well as the use of IT in the Lithuanian customs. In the third part a thorough statistical analysis of information flows of the customs documents processing is performed and the problems are identified. At the end of the paper some suggestions concerning the development of the Customs activities and more efficient use of IT are presented. Fifty sources of information were used for writing this paper: laws and other legal acts of the Republic of Lithuania, EU legislation, books and articles in the Lithuanian and English languages.
The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.
The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.
The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.
The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.
The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.
The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.
Research problem It has been four decades since conclusion of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties. The Convention included a provision that a treaty shall be inter-preted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. The customary status of this rule has been accepted by the International Court of Justice. Disregarding that, some question whether the rules, as opposed to principles, of interpretation are possible (i.e. would that not be better not to reduce them to writing). The International Law Commission itself has com-mented on this. On the other hand, the differences concerning interpretation of treaties were apparent already at the time the treaty was drafted. When the Convention was finally adopted, a few scholars representing the so-called New Haven approach opined that they expected the Convention to fail due to its "insistent emphasis upon an impossible, comformity-imposing textuality". In their view, conclusion of an international agreement was a continuous process of cooperation and collaboration of the parties, which required a much more detailed focus on the intentions of the parties than the Vienna Convention rule of interpretation envisaged. They called for interpretation which would search for genuine shared expectations, together with the complementary appeals for 'supplementing' and 'policing' communications in accordance with overriding community goals. Disregarding these hallmarks, they accepted that the text should remain an important index of party expectations, which they identify as one of the goals of interpretation. In their view, attention to the carefully worked out arrangements of the parties encourages the clarity of expectation, especially when sources of equal credibility give contradictory results concern-ing their expectations. Although the New Haven approach to interpretation of treaties was not included in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a form of their reflection could be identified in national law, especially that of continental legal systems. It is agreed that the major difference between common law and conti-nental practice lies in the rules of interpretation: common law is based on a presumption of law, into which statutes are interwoven, hence the practice of drafting statutes in the fullest detail, and the broad assumptions that a statute deals only with those cases which fall within its actual wording. Continental theory, on the other hand, treats statutes as a basis of the law, but these tend to be drafted in a very general and abstract way, leaving it up to the courts to fill in the details by reference to a presumed legislative intention. However, this key difference seems to dissipate, as the common law tends to move away from the purely literal towards the purposive construction of statutory provi-sions, i.e. a new, 'revamped' version of literal rule has developed, which required the general context and purpose to be taken into consideration before any decision is reached concerning the ordinary meaning of statutory words. The continental practice remains consistent on its emphasis on the legislative intention. In the law of contracts this rule turns into a global one: both Lando and UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts include a rule of interpretation requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties. This approach finds reflection also in the Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania, which was drafted on the basis of the UNIDROIT Principles. The International Law Commission returned to the topic of interpreta-tion of treaties thirty years later, in 2000, when it decided to consider the issue of fragmentation of international law and the potential problems it might give rise to. With this purpose in mind in its report on the topic of 2006 the study group has identified four general principles of interpretation of international rules: first, international law should be considered as a legal system, not as a random collection of international rules; second, in applying international law, it is necessary to determine the precise relationship between two or more rules and principles that are both valid and applicable in respect of the whole situa-tion (i.e. to identify whether their relationship is a one of interpretation or con-flict); thirdly, the norms should be interpreted in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties, and fourthly, when several norms bear on a single issue, they should be interpreted so as to give rise to a set of compatible obligations. Explaining the latter principle, the Commission, similarly to the New Haven group approach, emphasized the need to take into consideration the community values, i.e. ius cogens and erga omnes, even though continues to recommend to follow the Vienna Convention approach on the ordinary meaning of the terms. Forty years later, it is already possible to consider, whether the New Haven group was correct criticising the Vienna Convention rule of interpreta-tion for its excessive emphasis on text, and how significant is the practical difference between the rule requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties as opposed to the rule, which requires to interpret a treaty in accor-dance with the ordinary meaning of its terms. Also, what is the practical im-pact of these differences on protection of the rights of persons. In order to answer this research question, the focus of the dissertation is on the foreign investment law in the energy sector. The topic is suitable and convenient to consider the impact of the rules of interpretation and the problems posed by fragmentation of international law. Its sources include in-ternational, national, and for the EU countries also EU law, even though the nature of the relationship between EU law and international investment law remains a disputable issue. The energy sector has been chosen in order to evaluate more precisely the impact of the rules of interpretation and fragmenta-tion of international law on the content of the rights of persons and their appli-cation. Research sources The Dissertation analyzes multilateral and bilateral investment trea-ties which are significant for the the protection of investment in the energy sector and the decisions of international investment arbitral tribunals. The ma-jor sources of international investment law are international treaties. The most significant documents for the energy sector currently are the Energy Charter treaty, the ICSID Convention, and the bilateral investment treaties, although national law remains also important for enforcement of arbitral awards and interpretation of state contracts. State contracts also remain significant, be-cause as a rule they include arbitration clauses and stabilization clauses. The latter are particularly common in the energy sector due to its specificity – on the one hand, energy is a heavily politicized sector due to its significance for the development of the economy of a state and both its economic and political stability. Therefore it has a status of a strategic sector, even an issue of national security. This could be observed ever since the beginning of the twentieth century. On the other hand, energy is an infrastructure sector, which requires high investments for development. Not all states are capable to develop this sector by their own financial means, and choose to attract foreign investment. As a result, investment contracts (state contracts) are concluded; they have a status of international commercial contracts, and their parties are free to choose both the applicable law and the means of dispute settlement. The en-ergy contracts as a rule include stabilization clauses, which seek to maintain stable business legal and financial environment for the duration of the contract. Finally, European Union law may also be accepted as a source for in-vestment protection, despite its generalized purposes, which are to achieve the strengthening and convergence of their economies and to establish a monetary and economic union, to implement a common foreign and security policy, including the progressive framing of the common defence policy, and to estab-lish the area of freedom, security and justice. EU law and foreign investment law are still largely conceived as independent and hardly interlinked. However, as integration between the EU member states becomes closer, EU legislation makes an increasing impact also on the specific sectors of the economy, in-cluding the energy sector. Research object The research object of this dissertation are the problems of interpreta-tion and application of law which arise in the resolution of disputes concerning protection of investments in the energy sector between the host states and for-eign investors. They may be grouped into three groups on the basis of the ap-plicable law: 1. The problems of interpretation of international agreements. Both BITs and MITs apply only with respect to investment. ICSID arbitral tribunals can hear only disputes arising directly out of an investment. Disregarding the key role the notion has on the exercise of rights, its meaning remains unclear. The most recent arbitral practice is completely inconsistent on this issue. No less problems are posed by the umbrella clauses, which are included in a large number of BITs and the Energy Charter Treaty, and which requires states to observe obligations they have entered into with an investor. These provisions have been included even in the BITs of 1970s, but in practice they have emerged only recently. The arbitral tribunals differ on whether this provision should be read literaly, or whether its meaning should be restricted. 2. The problems of interpretation of arbitration clauses and invest-ment contracts. This group includes the problems concerning arbitrab
Research problem It has been four decades since conclusion of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties. The Convention included a provision that a treaty shall be inter-preted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. The customary status of this rule has been accepted by the International Court of Justice. Disregarding that, some question whether the rules, as opposed to principles, of interpretation are possible (i.e. would that not be better not to reduce them to writing). The International Law Commission itself has com-mented on this. On the other hand, the differences concerning interpretation of treaties were apparent already at the time the treaty was drafted. When the Convention was finally adopted, a few scholars representing the so-called New Haven approach opined that they expected the Convention to fail due to its "insistent emphasis upon an impossible, comformity-imposing textuality". In their view, conclusion of an international agreement was a continuous process of cooperation and collaboration of the parties, which required a much more detailed focus on the intentions of the parties than the Vienna Convention rule of interpretation envisaged. They called for interpretation which would search for genuine shared expectations, together with the complementary appeals for 'supplementing' and 'policing' communications in accordance with overriding community goals. Disregarding these hallmarks, they accepted that the text should remain an important index of party expectations, which they identify as one of the goals of interpretation. In their view, attention to the carefully worked out arrangements of the parties encourages the clarity of expectation, especially when sources of equal credibility give contradictory results concern-ing their expectations. Although the New Haven approach to interpretation of treaties was not included in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a form of their reflection could be identified in national law, especially that of continental legal systems. It is agreed that the major difference between common law and conti-nental practice lies in the rules of interpretation: common law is based on a presumption of law, into which statutes are interwoven, hence the practice of drafting statutes in the fullest detail, and the broad assumptions that a statute deals only with those cases which fall within its actual wording. Continental theory, on the other hand, treats statutes as a basis of the law, but these tend to be drafted in a very general and abstract way, leaving it up to the courts to fill in the details by reference to a presumed legislative intention. However, this key difference seems to dissipate, as the common law tends to move away from the purely literal towards the purposive construction of statutory provi-sions, i.e. a new, 'revamped' version of literal rule has developed, which required the general context and purpose to be taken into consideration before any decision is reached concerning the ordinary meaning of statutory words. The continental practice remains consistent on its emphasis on the legislative intention. In the law of contracts this rule turns into a global one: both Lando and UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts include a rule of interpretation requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties. This approach finds reflection also in the Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania, which was drafted on the basis of the UNIDROIT Principles. The International Law Commission returned to the topic of interpreta-tion of treaties thirty years later, in 2000, when it decided to consider the issue of fragmentation of international law and the potential problems it might give rise to. With this purpose in mind in its report on the topic of 2006 the study group has identified four general principles of interpretation of international rules: first, international law should be considered as a legal system, not as a random collection of international rules; second, in applying international law, it is necessary to determine the precise relationship between two or more rules and principles that are both valid and applicable in respect of the whole situa-tion (i.e. to identify whether their relationship is a one of interpretation or con-flict); thirdly, the norms should be interpreted in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties, and fourthly, when several norms bear on a single issue, they should be interpreted so as to give rise to a set of compatible obligations. Explaining the latter principle, the Commission, similarly to the New Haven group approach, emphasized the need to take into consideration the community values, i.e. ius cogens and erga omnes, even though continues to recommend to follow the Vienna Convention approach on the ordinary meaning of the terms. Forty years later, it is already possible to consider, whether the New Haven group was correct criticising the Vienna Convention rule of interpreta-tion for its excessive emphasis on text, and how significant is the practical difference between the rule requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties as opposed to the rule, which requires to interpret a treaty in accor-dance with the ordinary meaning of its terms. Also, what is the practical im-pact of these differences on protection of the rights of persons. In order to answer this research question, the focus of the dissertation is on the foreign investment law in the energy sector. The topic is suitable and convenient to consider the impact of the rules of interpretation and the problems posed by fragmentation of international law. Its sources include in-ternational, national, and for the EU countries also EU law, even though the nature of the relationship between EU law and international investment law remains a disputable issue. The energy sector has been chosen in order to evaluate more precisely the impact of the rules of interpretation and fragmenta-tion of international law on the content of the rights of persons and their appli-cation. Research sources The Dissertation analyzes multilateral and bilateral investment trea-ties which are significant for the the protection of investment in the energy sector and the decisions of international investment arbitral tribunals. The ma-jor sources of international investment law are international treaties. The most significant documents for the energy sector currently are the Energy Charter treaty, the ICSID Convention, and the bilateral investment treaties, although national law remains also important for enforcement of arbitral awards and interpretation of state contracts. State contracts also remain significant, be-cause as a rule they include arbitration clauses and stabilization clauses. The latter are particularly common in the energy sector due to its specificity – on the one hand, energy is a heavily politicized sector due to its significance for the development of the economy of a state and both its economic and political stability. Therefore it has a status of a strategic sector, even an issue of national security. This could be observed ever since the beginning of the twentieth century. On the other hand, energy is an infrastructure sector, which requires high investments for development. Not all states are capable to develop this sector by their own financial means, and choose to attract foreign investment. As a result, investment contracts (state contracts) are concluded; they have a status of international commercial contracts, and their parties are free to choose both the applicable law and the means of dispute settlement. The en-ergy contracts as a rule include stabilization clauses, which seek to maintain stable business legal and financial environment for the duration of the contract. Finally, European Union law may also be accepted as a source for in-vestment protection, despite its generalized purposes, which are to achieve the strengthening and convergence of their economies and to establish a monetary and economic union, to implement a common foreign and security policy, including the progressive framing of the common defence policy, and to estab-lish the area of freedom, security and justice. EU law and foreign investment law are still largely conceived as independent and hardly interlinked. However, as integration between the EU member states becomes closer, EU legislation makes an increasing impact also on the specific sectors of the economy, in-cluding the energy sector. Research object The research object of this dissertation are the problems of interpreta-tion and application of law which arise in the resolution of disputes concerning protection of investments in the energy sector between the host states and for-eign investors. They may be grouped into three groups on the basis of the ap-plicable law: 1. The problems of interpretation of international agreements. Both BITs and MITs apply only with respect to investment. ICSID arbitral tribunals can hear only disputes arising directly out of an investment. Disregarding the key role the notion has on the exercise of rights, its meaning remains unclear. The most recent arbitral practice is completely inconsistent on this issue. No less problems are posed by the umbrella clauses, which are included in a large number of BITs and the Energy Charter Treaty, and which requires states to observe obligations they have entered into with an investor. These provisions have been included even in the BITs of 1970s, but in practice they have emerged only recently. The arbitral tribunals differ on whether this provision should be read literaly, or whether its meaning should be restricted. 2. The problems of interpretation of arbitration clauses and invest-ment contracts. This group includes the problems concerning arbitrab
