In this article we have approached the reality surrounding the intervention of public authorities in the control of air pollution in our country. This is done through the planning, management and protection of the air we breathe. In Spain, as in the other countries that make up the European Union, Economic growth brings the constant increase in the consumption of natural resources, the generation of waste and pollutants that spread to the atmosphere generating "air pollution" and the exposure of citizens to numerous toxic and harmful substances that put at risk and generate dangers and uncertainty, among other issues, to human health. In this way, we can affirm, without a doubt, that the progress generated in the integration of the environment in the decision-making process and in the realization of sectoral policies they are relatively slow. ; En el presente artículo nos hemos aproximado a la realidad que rodea la intervención de los poderes públicos en el control de la contaminación atmosférica en nuestro país. Esto se realiza a través de la planificación, la gestión y la protección del aire que respiramos. En España, como en los demás países que conforman la Unión Europea, el crecimiento económico lleva parejo el aumento constante del consumo de recursos naturales, la generación de residuos y agentes contaminantes que se propagan a la atmósfera generando "contaminación atmosfércia" y la exposición de los ciudadanos a numerosas sustancias tóxicas y dañinas que ponen en riesgo y generan peligros e incertidumbre, entre otras cuestiones, a la salud humana. De este modo, podemos afirmar, sin lugar a dudas, que los progresos generados en la integración del medioambiente en el proceso de toma de decisiones y en la concreción de políticas de carácter sectorial son relativamente lentos. ; Dans cet article, nous avons abordé la réalité entourant l'intervention des pouvoirs publics dans le contrôle de la pollution de l'air dans notre pays. Ceci est fait par la planification, la gestion et la protection de l'air que nous respirons. En Espagne, comme dans les autres pays de l'Union européenne, La croissance économique entraîne l'augmentation constante de la consommation de ressources naturelles, la génération de déchets et de polluants qui se propagent dans l'atmosphère générant une "pollution de l'air" et l'exposition des citoyens à de nombreuses substances toxiques et nocives qui met en péril et génère des dangers et des incertitudes, entre autres problèmes, pour la santé humaine. De cette façon, nous pouvons affirmer, sans aucun doute, que les progrès réalisés dans l'intégration de l'environnement dans le processus décisionnel et dans la réalisation des politiques sectorielles, elles sont relativement lentes.
El Protocolo de Montreal relativo a las sustancias que agotan la capa de ozono, firmado el 16 de septiembre de 1987, ajustado y enmendado en 1990, 1992, 1995 y 1997 es un modelo de concertación entre todos los grupos interesados, países desarrollados y países en desarrollo, gobiernos, diplomáticos, científicos, industria, organizaciones no gubernamentales y ciudadanos preocupados de todos los rincones del planeta. El Protocolo de Montreal ha sido ratificado por 165 países y ha logrado disminuír la producción y consumo de las diversas sustancias que destruyen el ozono y reducido la tasa de crecimiento de la concentración atmosférica de varias de estas sustancias. ; The Protocol of Montreal regarding substances which damage the ozone layer, signed on 16 September 1987, adjusted and amended in 1990, 1992, 1995 and 1997, is a model of agreement between all groups concerned: developed and developing countries, governments, diplomats, scientists, industry, non governmental organisations and worried world citizens. The Protocol of Montreal has been ratified by 165 countries and has succeeded in reducing the production and consumption of several substances that destroy the ozone layer as well as in decreasing the growth rate in atmospheric concentration of many such substances. ; Dossier: Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo ; Instituto de Relaciones Internacionales
El concepto de exposición de la población como un indicador directo del impacto de la contaminación sobre la salud pública es una consecuencia lógica del hecho de definir como objetivo primordial de las medidas de calidad del aire la protección de la salud del individuo. En este artículo se presenta la exposición a contaminantes en aire en diversos ámbitos como: la higiene industrial, la contaminación de ambientes interiores y su repercusión sobre la legislación de calidad del aire. La disminución del riesgo de salud de la población a la exposición de contaminantes en aire abre numerosos retos a la hora de definir indicadores de exposición, estrategias de control y evaluaciones efectivas de la exposición de la población. ; The concept of population exposure as a direct indicator of the impact of pollution on public health is a consequence of the fact that the final aim of air quality measurements is the protection of the individuals' health. This article presents a picture of the exposure to air pollutants in different environments: industrial hygiene, indoor pollution and air quality legislation. The reduction of the health risk of the population to air pollution exposure opens new challenges when defining exposure indicators, control strategies and an effective assessment human exposure.
El presente trabajo tiene el propósito de contribuir a mejorar el conocimiento de la calidad del aire en la ciudad de Loja a través del análisis de la emisión de dióxido de carbono (CO2) de los vehículos automotores, para lo cual se caracterizó al parque automotor mediante encuestas, aforo vehicular y recopilación de información en entidades públicas y privadas. Obtenida la información base, se estimó la emisión de CO2en toneladas por año para la flota registrada en el año 2017 por el Centro de Matriculación Vehicular de Loja-CMVLM y la Unidad Municipal de Transporte Terrestre, Transito y Seguridad Vial-UMTTSV, aplicando la fórmula general desarrollada por la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de Estados Unidos-EPA, que utiliza tres variables: número de vehículos, actividad vehicular y factor de emisión. Los resultados muestran que, en la ciudad de Loja, el parque automotor emitió 208.920 toneladas de CO2durante el año 2017. El transporte particular con 60% es el que principalmente contribuyó a la emisión de CO2a la atmósfera, seguido del transporte público bajo regulación de la UMTTSV con el 33 % y un 7% correspondientes a nuevos vehículos, motos y vehículos del estado. Los factores que inciden para que se emita mayor cantidad de CO2a la atmósfera, son principalmente el número de vehículos y las horas de operación vehicular en la zona de estudio. Por otro lado, los factores que contribuyen al incremento vehicular son la ampliación del perímetro urbano y el aumento de la actividad económica de la ciudad. ; This study aims to improve our knowledge concerning the air quality by analysing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions emanating from motor vehicles. The vehicle fleet was characterized by means of surveys, vehicular seating capacity, and collection of information from both public and private entities. After obtaining the information, the CO2emissions in tons per year were estimated for the vehicular fleet in 2017 according to data from the Vehicle Registration Center of Loja-CMVLM, and the Municipal Transport Traffic and Road Safety Unit –UMTTSV and after applying a universal formula developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which uses three main variables: number of vehicles, vehicular activity and emission factor. The results show that in the city of Loja the vehicular fleet emitted 208,920 tons of CO2in 2017. Private transportation with 60% is the one that mainly contributed to the emission of CO2into the atmosphere, followed by public transport under UMTTSV regulation with 33% and 7% corresponded to new vehicles, motorcycles and government vehicles. The main factors that determine vehicle CO2 emissions into the atmosphere are: the number of vehicles and the number of hours of vehicular operation in the area of investigation. On the other hand, vehicular increase is due to: the enlargement of the urban perimeter and activity pertaining to the local economy.
El turismo es un pilar fundamental en el desarrollo económico y social de España. Dentro del sector turístico, las compañías aéreas suponen un elemento de vital importancia, al ser este medio el más utilizado por los turistas para sus desplazamientos. Dichas compañías producen un elevado porcentaje de contaminación -atmosférica y acústica, fundamentalmente- que ha de reducirse porque su volumen y ritmo de evolución son insostenibles tanto desde una óptica global como desde la perspectiva de los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible y las políticas de protección ambiental de los países avanzados, especialmente, en los Estados miembros de la Unión Europea. Así pues, se observa en la actualidad cómo las compañías aéreas avanzan hacia el desarrollo de políticas de Responsabilidad Social Corporativa que enfatizan la dimensión medioambiental de su negocio. Analizar la dinámica empresarial de las mismas, desde esta perspectiva, es importante para extraer conclusiones acerca de la importancia del cambio estructural y funcional del sistema social, económico y político para la sostenibilidad y, también, para el mantenimiento de los equilibrios básicos del ecosistema socioeconómico y ambiental de nuestros días. ; Tourism is a significant economic sector since the economic and social development of Spain points of view. Within, airlines are crucial due to it accounts for the highest share on international tourists transport mean selection. Airlines produce a significant percentage of total pollution –mostly atmospheric and acoustic, that should be reduced because their volume and rhythm of increase are unsustainable from the global perspective and also for sustainable development aims and environmental protection policies, particularly the E.U policies. Therefore, airlines are progressing nowadays through Social Corporative Responsibility policies which emphasize their business environmental dimension. It is relevant to analyze those firm SCR dynamics in order to obtain conclusions on the structural and functional systems drivers of change – since the social economic and political perspectives and its relations to sustainability; also in terms to their collaboration to socioeconomic and environmental basic equilibrium maintenance.
This work summarizes the importance of atmospheric air quality is global as a criterion to take into account when entering the energy sector in developed countries, because there are rules and regulations that limit the generation of gases produced by combustion and thus decrease its harmful effects. In recent years, these governments have done hard work in reducing emissions, by developing sophisticated technology in equipment that produces these gases. One of the current biomass fuels used in the food production industry is rice husk. The main technique for taking advantage of this is as furnace fuel, to generate hot gases. These high temperature gases are sent to a heat exchanger (drying chamber) in rice production and then discharged into the atmosphere. The lack of control of variables that alter the quality in which the gases are expelled into the atmosphere makes the biomass burning process incapable of meeting the standards required by the environmental protection agencies of the United States and Europe before accepting a new product into the market. For the development of the project, it will seek to couple a new stage in the production process of hot gases in order to purify the pollutants through a chemical reaction that could generate solid waste (Urea) and not substantially decrease the temperature of the oven gases. To fulfill the objective of this project, firstly, a study of the art and technique on biomass burners and NOx gas reduction methods will be developed. Continuing with the definition of specifications taking into account the limitations proposed by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and UNECE. Finally, carry out the conceptual and basic design of the gas purification stage and coupling to the Furnace-burner process. ; Este trabajo resume la importancia de la calidad del aire atmosférico como criterio global para tener en cuenta a la hora de entrar en el sector energético de los países desarrollados, debido a que existen normas y regulaciones que limitan la generación de gases producidos por la combustión y así disminuir sus efectos nocivos. En los últimos años estos gobiernos han realizado una ardua labor disminuyendo las emisiones, mediante el desarrollo de tecnología sofisticada en los equipos productores de estos gases. Uno de los combustibles de biomasa actuales utilizado en la industria de producción de alimentos es la cascarilla de arroz. La principal técnica de aprovechamiento de esta es como combustible de hornos, para generar gases calientes. Estos gases con alta temperatura son enviados para un intercambiador de calor (cámara de secado) en la producción de arroz y luego desechados hacia la atmósfera. La falta de control de variables que alteran la calidad en la que los gases salen expulsados hacia la atmósfera hace del proceso de quemado de biomasa incapaz de cumplir las normas que exigen las agencias de protección ambiental de Estados Unidos y Europa antes de aceptar un nuevo producto al mercado. Para el desarrollo del proyecto, se buscará acoplar una nueva etapa en el proceso de producción de gases calientes con el fin de hacer una depuración de los contaminantes mediante una reacción química que podría generar desechos sólidos (Urea) y no disminuya sustancialmente la temperatura de los gases del horno. Para cumplir el objetivo de este proyecto, en primer lugar, se desarrollará un estudio del arte y de la técnica sobre quemadores de biomasa y métodos de reducción de gases NOx. Siguiendo con la definición de especificaciones teniendo en cuenta las limitaciones de propuestas por la EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) y UNECE. Finalmente, realizar el diseño conceptual y básico de la etapa de depuración de los gases y acoplamiento al proceso del Horno-quemador.
In order to assess the evolution of aerosol parameters affecting climate change, a long-term trend analysis of aerosol optical properties was performed on time series from 52 stations situated across five continents. The time series of measured scattering, backscattering and absorption coefficients as well as the derived single scattering albedo, backscattering fraction, scattering and absorption Ångström exponents covered at least 10 years and up to 40 years for some stations. The non-parametric seasonal Mann–Kendall (MK) statistical test associated with several pre-whitening methods and with Sen's slope was used as the main trend analysis method. Comparisons with general least mean square associated with autoregressive bootstrap (GLS/ARB) and with standard least mean square analysis (LMS) enabled confirmation of the detected MK statistically significant trends and the assessment of advantages and limitations of each method. Currently, scattering and backscattering coefficient trends are mostly decreasing in Europe and North America and are not statistically significant in Asia, while polar stations exhibit a mix of increasing and decreasing trends. A few increasing trends are also found at some stations in North America and Australia. Absorption coefficient time series also exhibit primarily decreasing trends. For single scattering albedo, 52 % of the sites exhibit statistically significant positive trends, mostly in Asia, eastern/northern Europe and the Arctic, 22 % of sites exhibit statistically significant negative trends, mostly in central Europe and central North America, while the remaining 26 % of sites have trends which are not statistically significant. In addition to evaluating trends for the overall time series, the evolution of the trends in sequential 10-year segments was also analyzed. For scattering and backscattering, statistically significant increasing 10-year trends are primarily found for earlier periods (10-year trends ending in 2010–2015) for polar stations and Mauna Loa. For most of the stations, the present-day statistically significant decreasing 10-year trends of the single scattering albedo were preceded by not statistically significant and statistically significant increasing 10-year trends. The effect of air pollution abatement policies in continental North America is very obvious in the 10-year trends of the scattering coefficient – there is a shift to statistically significant negative trends in 2009–2012 for all stations in the eastern and central USA. This long-term trend analysis of aerosol radiative properties with a broad spatial coverage provides insight into potential aerosol effects on climate changes. ; European Union (EU) 654109 ; ACTRIS PPP project 739530 ; IMPROVE ; Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air pollutants in Europe (EMEP) under UNECE ; Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program "Development of Monitoring and Analysis Techniques for Atmospheric Composition in Korea" KMA2018-00522 ; "Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme" (AMAP) under EU action "Black Carbon in the Arctic" 80026 ; Norwegian Environment Agency ; Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea 2017R1D1A1B06032548 ; European Union (EU) 262254 ; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under project ACTRIS-2 654109 ; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under project iCUPE 689443 ; Academy of Finland 307331 264242 268004 284536 287440 ; AEMET ; Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation, SERI 15.0159-1 ; Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration ; Ministry of Science and Technology ; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme 654109 ; MINECO (Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness) ; FEDER fund under the PRISMA project CGL2012-39623-C02/00 ; FEDER fund under the HOUSE project CGL2016-78594-R ; Generalitat de Catalunya AGAUR 2014 SGR33 AGAUR 2017 SGR41 ; Business Finland 2634/31/2015 ; Ramon y Cajal Fellowship - Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness RYC-2013-14036 ; Department of Biotechnology (DBT) India 2634/31/2015 ; Academy of Finland 307331 ; National Oceanic Atmospheric Admin (NOAA) - USA ; ACTRIS-France National Research infrastructure ; CNRS-INSU long-term observing program ; Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness CGL2016-81092-R CGL2017-90884-REDT RTI2018-101154-A-I00 ; National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) 41675129 ; National Key Project of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China 2016YFC0203305 2016YFC0203306 ; Basic Research Project of the Chinese Academy of Meteorological of Sciences 2017Z011 ; Knut-and-AliceWallenberg Foundation within the ACAS project (Arctic Climate Across Scales) 2016.0024 ; CPR: Para La Naturaleza and the nature reserve of Cabezas de San Juan and the support of grants AGS 0936879 and EAR1331841.
[Resumo] En España en 1972 promúlgase a Lei 38/1972, de Protección do Ambiente Atmosférico que pode ser considerada como o inicio ou arranque da necesidade de controlar a calidade dos combustibles e carburantes e de establecer, ao respecto, normas de obrigado cumprimento. No período comprendido entre 1975 e 2010, estúdase: -A evolución sufrida polas especificacións dos combustibles de automoción, gasolinas e gasóleos clase A, para adaptarse ás limitacións impostas pola necesidade de cumprir certos obxectivos ambientais e tecnolóxicos, a través da lexislación existente para o efecto. -O sistema de distribución e comercialización de combustibles de automoción na Comunidade Autónoma de Galicia; centrándose para iso en Estacións de Servizo e Centros de Distribución, puntos de distribución máis próximos ao usuario final. -A evolución do prezo das gasolinas e os gasóleos clase A. -Se na Comunidade Autónoma de Galicia se deu cumprimento ao requisito: Mostraxe e Análise, establecido no Real Decreto 1700/2003 e seguintes, en relación ao control de calidade dos combustibles comercializados no seu territorio. ; [Resumen] En España en 1972 se promulga la Ley 38/1972, de Protección del Ambiente Atmosférico que puede ser considerada como el inicio o arranque de la necesidad de controlar la calidad de los combustibles y carburantes y de establecer, al respecto, normas de obligado cumplimiento. En el período comprendido entre 1975 y 2010, se estudia: -La evolución sufrida por las especificaciones de los combustibles de automoción, gasolinas y gasóleos clase A, para adaptarse a las limitaciones impuestas por la necesidad de cumplir ciertos objetivos medioambientales y tecnológicos, a través de la legislación existente al efecto. -El sistema de distribución y comercialización de combustibles de automoción en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia; centrándose para ello en Estaciones de Servicio y Centros de Distribución, puntos de distribución más cercanos al usuario final. -La evolución del precio de las gasolinas y los gasóleos clase A. -Si en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia se ha dado cumplimiento al requisito: Muestreo y Análisis, establecido en el Real Decreto 1700/2003 y siguientes, en relación al control de calidad de los combustibles comercializados en su territorio. ; [Abstract] Spanish Law 38/1972 on the Protection of the Atmospheric Environment was enacted in 1972. This Law can be considered as the starting point of the need to control the quality of fuels and to establish binding rules in this matter. In the period between 1975 and 2010 the following studies were carried out:-The evolution undergone by the specifications for motor fuels, petrol and Class A diesel, to adapt them to the limitations imposed by the need to meet certain environmental and technological objectives through existing legislation to that effect. -The system of distribution and marketing of motor fuels in Galicia; by focusing on service stations and distribution centers, the service points closer to the end user distribution. -The evolution of the price of gasoline and Class A diesel. -If the Autonomous Community of Galicia has complied with the requirement: Sampling and Analysis, established by Royal Decree 1700/2003 and following, in relation to quality control of the fuels sold in their territory.
El ISSN corresponde a la versión electrónica del documento ; Ronald Hall, experto externo principal y exasesor principal de DG REGIO, nos ofrece su perspectiva personal sobre el programa de Cooperación urbana internacional de la Unión Europea (UE).
La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo general determinar el impacto de la falta de un adecuado manejo de residuos sólidos en la salud de la población del distrito de San Juan Bautista periodo 2017, por lo que se optó por una investigación no experimental con diseño descriptiva correlacional, tomando en cuenta a 383 pobladores jefes de familias a los que se le aplicó una encuesta con relación a las variables en estudio a través de un cuestionario de preguntas, para posteriormente llegar a las siguientes conclusiones: Tras analizar los resultados se determinó que a salud poblacional es afectada por diversos factores mencionados en el mismos, de los cueles uno de los principales causantes es el inadecuado manejo de los residuos sólidos, pues este tiene consecuencias negativas en el ambiente físico, biológico, además es la causante de contaminación atmosférica y química, sin embargo los responsables son todas personas, pues estos no poseen una cultura de cuidado y responsabilidad sociales con su cuerpo, ni con el ambiente que los rodea. En resumen los residuos sólidos se vienen manejando de manera inapropiada, pues se han observado un sinnúmero de falencias que afectan la salud de la población, es una responsabilidad que corresponde a todos los participantes cumplir, tanto a los gobernantes como a la población, por un lado el gobierno pocas veces promueve la implementación de plantas de tratamiento dentro de los rellenos sanitarios, no dispone de un lugar, de forma permanente, sanitaria y ambientalmente segura, por su parte la población no tienen una cultura de cuidado y protección al medio ambiente. Finalmente se ha logrado establecer la relación entre las variables en estudio, pues el inadecuado manejo de los residuos sólidos por parte del gobierno local tiene un efecto negativo en la salud de los pobladores del distrito de San Juan Bautista. ; The present investigation had as general objective to determine the impact of the lack of an adequate solid waste management in the health of the population of the district of San Juan Bautista period 2017, reason why a non-experimental research with descriptive correlational design was chosen, Taking into account 383 heads of households who were surveyed in relation to the variables under study through a questionnaire of questions, to reach later the following conclusions: After analyzing the results it was determined that population health Is affected by several factors mentioned in the same, of which one of the main causes is the inadequate management of solid waste, since it has negative consequences on the physical and biological environment, besides it is the cause of atmospheric and chemical pollution, without However, those responsible are all people, as they do not have a culture of care and Social responsibility with their body, or the environment that surrounds them. In short, solid waste is being handled in an inappropriate way, since a number of shortcomings have been observed that affect the health of the population, it is a responsibility that all participants meet, both the government and the population, for a On the other hand, the government rarely promotes the implementation of treatment plants within sanitary landfills, it does not have a permanent, sanitary and environmentally safe place, while the population does not have a culture of care and protection of the environment. Finally, it has been possible to establish the relationship between the variables under study, since the inadequate management of solid waste by the local government has a negative effect on the health of the residents of the district of San Juan Bautista. ; O objetivo geral desta pesquisa foi determinar o impacto da falta de gerenciamento adequado de resíduos sólidos na saúde da população do distrito de San Juan Bautista, 2017, de modo que foi escolhida uma pesquisa não experimental com um desenho descritivo correlacional. Levando em conta 383 colonos chefes de famílias a quem foi aplicada uma pesquisa em relação às variáveis estudadas através de um questionário de perguntas, para subsequentemente chegar às seguintes conclusões: após analisar os resultados, determinou-se que a saúde da população É afetado por vários fatores mencionados, uma das principais causas é o gerenciamento inadequado de resíduos sólidos, pois isso tem conseqüências negativas no ambiente físico e biológico, também está causando poluição atmosférica e química, sem No entanto, os responsáveis são todas as pessoas, porque não têm uma cultura de cuidados e responsabilidade social com seu corpo, nem com o ambiente que os rodeia. Em resumo, os resíduos sólidos foram tratados de forma inadequada, uma vez que houve uma série de deficiências que afetam a saúde da população, é uma responsabilidade que todos os participantes devem atender, tanto o governo quanto a população, por uma Por outro lado, o governo raramente promove a implantação de usinas de tratamento em aterros sanitários, não tem um lugar, permanentemente, sanitário e ambientalmente seguro, por sua vez, a população não tem uma cultura de cuidados e proteção do meio ambiente. Finalmente, estabeleceu-se a relação entre as variáveis em estudo, uma vez que a gestão inadequada dos resíduos sólidos pelo governo local tem um efeito negativo na saúde dos habitantes do distrito de San Juan Bautista. ; Tesis
Why should the global community be concerned about climate change? What are the consequences of climate change? How has the clash between science and politics in the United States affected the policy debate about climate change around the world? Why has the United States failed to offer leadership on climate change? What can be done to craft a viable climate change agenda? These questions will guide the discussion below.Why should the global community be concerned about climate change?Climate change is one of the most important policy issues of the twenty-first century. It has potentially devastating consequences for the global environment. It is a transnational challenge that has social, political, and economic implications for the entire international community. During the first ten years of the twenty-first century, we have experienced the warmest years in modern climate history. This same decade has been characterized as one of the warmest on record. Although the scientific community has raised serious concerns about climate change, this global environmental phenomenon has not received the same kind of responsesuch as aPearl Harbor in 1941 or a 9/11 in New York City in 2001 that rallied U.S. citizens and the U.S. government to action.The political conflict over climate change within and between countries, especially in the United States, has demonstrated three important aspects about this issue. First, it shows how the clash between science and politics delays action. Second, it demonstrates how ideology and entrenched economic interests can trump the research findings of the scientific community. Third, it makes clear that rather than offering leadership, the U.S. has assumed the role of a laggard on the issue of climate change.What are the consequences of climate change? We are beyond the point of framing the issue of climate change as a "debate." There is no debate. As we have learned from the scientific community as reflected by the research of the Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change in its 4th (2007) and 5th (2013) reports, climate change is occurring and human activities are a major contributor to the problem, especially the burning of fossil fuels. Global reinsurance companies including Munich Re, Swiss Re, and Lloyds of London have raised serious concerns about the prospects of a warming planet and the impact on the global insurance industry. In the United States, for instance, the consequences of climate change is forcing domestic insurance companies including MetLife, State Farm, Allstate, and American International Group to reconsider their coverage of commercial and residential properties in coastal zones. To be candid and frank, global and nationally-based insurance companies are well aware of the impact of human-induced climate change. A sample of the consequences of climate change can be described as follows.First, carbon dioxide, one of the primary greenhouse gases associated with climate change, has been absorbed into the atmosphere, terrestrial areas, and the oceans. The oceans, in particular, face a serious threat in terms of marine life, the fishing industry, coral reefs, and increased acidification. Second, with the melting of the polar caps, a warming planet is already resulting in rising seas around the globe. For instance, the states on the East and Gulf coasts of the United States are being challenged to establish viable adaption strategies to address rising seas. At the same time, some coastal areas are dealing with the twin threats of rising seas and sinking lands (i.e., subsidence). Moreover, sea level rise is not consistent around the globe, but rather, it is characterized by its variation. In other words, we see differential impacts facing some coastal areas (e.g., Bangladesh) compared to other coastal regions. Third, a warming planet and especially warmer seas will create an environment of more ferocious hurricanes. For instance, scientists at the 2007 International Summit on Global Warming, Climate Change, and Hurricanes were less concerned about the frequency of hurricanes and were increasingly concerned about the destructiveness of Katrina-like tropical cyclones around the globe. Fourth, an increasingly important aspect of this global environmental phenomenon is the impact of climate change on public health. One aspect of this concern involves an increase in water-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever due to the warming of the planet.How has the clash between science and politics in the United States affected the policy debate about climate change?The political response of the U.S. to climate change has been influenced bythe conflict taking place between the scientific community and a variety of partisans within the country.On the one hand, from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, from the Pew Center for Global Climate Change to the Environmental Protection Agency, from the World Meteorological Organization to the vast majority of climate scientists, we have learned that this global environmental phenomenon is clearly due to human actions. On the other hand, a variety of individuals and groups including members of the U.S. Congressto media celebritiesto organized interests (e.g., the fossil fuel industry) have been successful in opposing U.S. action on climate change. For instance, James Inhofe, Republican Senator representing the state of Oklahoma has been at the forefront of opposing federal and state actions in response to climate change. As a matter of fact, where Inhofe went so far as to say that climate change is the "greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American public,"conservative radio show host, Rush Limbaugh, stated that the "anti-global warmers have to go out there and get their own science to counter the science that the pro-global warming crowd is using, and they're making it up." In short, the clash between science and politics in the U.S. over climate change clearly shows the power of entrenched domestic interests and their impact on policy making.During the 1990s, a variety of industries including fossil fuels, automotive, manufacturing among others created the Global Climate Coalition to oppose efforts to respond to climate change.This coalition eventually collapsed as various industries withdrew from it. Another example of opposition to action on climate change is the Heritage Foundation, a think tank that published articles in opposition to federal action on climate change. It is important to note that underlying the actions of deniers of human-induced climate change has been their position that government regulations imposed on business and industry would be harmful to U.S. jobs and trade competitiveness. The veracity of this concern, however, has yet to be realized. Moreover, this argument set forth by the deniers overlooks the growth in green jobs and the benefits of a clean energy agenda.Why has the United States failed to offer leadership on climate change? Until recently, the United States was the number one producer of the greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Notwithstanding China's recent emergence as the largest producer of greenhouse gases, the U.S. remains a key player in greenhouse gas production and it remains a laggard in taking action to reduce greenhouse gases. We now turn our attention to the role of five key players in the U.S. political system.As far as modern U.S. presidents are concerned, where Ronald Reagan ignored the issue of climate change during the 1980s leading up to the Earth Summit in 1992, George H. W. Bush, facing pressure at home, opposed mandatory guidelines and timetables that emerged from the Earth Summit and used his influence to change the requirements to voluntary efforts on the part of industry. Having said this, the fact that Bush signed the climate change treaty lent legitimacy to the issue. Bill Clinton and his environmental Vice President Al Gore attempted to push a climate change agenda but ran into strong opposition from the U.S. Congress. Two months into his presidency, George W. Bush rejected the Kyoto Protocol arguing that it would hurt the U.S. economy and jobs.The U.S. Congress has been a major obstacle in responding to climate change.During the 1990s until the present time, Congressional Republicans held a majority during the administrations of Clinton and Bush, the son, and have controlled the House of Representatives during the Obama administration. Congressional Republicans, along with Democrats representing energy-intensive states, have opposed action on climate change.In a move that surprised many observers of American politics, the Supreme Court,the highest court in the U.S.,ruled in 2007 that the Environmental Protection Action, under the authority of the Clean Air Act, had a responsibility to regulate greenhouse gas emissions to protect public health and the environment. However, the Republican-controlled House of Representatives has usedits resources to thwart action on the part of the EPA to regulate greenhouse gas emissions.One aspect of American politics that has offered hope for a clean energy future has been the importance of federalism where a growing number of states have taken actions alone and in concert with other states to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.Moreover, several coalitions of U.S. states have joined with Canadian provinces in these efforts. In short, numerous states in the U.S. are taking action in response to climate change because of the failure of the U.S. federal government to act.What can be done to craft a viable climate change agenda? Climate change is a transnational, environmental problem that poses serious challenges to the entire international community. The U.S. must join with the developed countries of the EU in an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and work on viable adaption strategies. However, the U.S. will first have to deal with domestic forces at home (e.g., entrenched economic interests and ideological opponents) that exercise power in opposition to federal action on climate change. At the same time, incentives will have to be employed in order to encourage newly modernizing nations (e.g., China, India, Brazil among others) to join with the U.S. and members of the EU to work together to establish a clean energy future. Sobre el autorProfessor of Political ScienceOld Dominion UniversityNorfolk, Virginia USA
Este trabajo presenta el desarrollo del estudio de las concentraciones de los 16 hidrocarburos aromáticos policíclicos (HAPs) prioritarios por la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los Estados Unidos (US-EPA) en matrices marinas de la bahía de Tumaco en la costa Pacífica colombiana, donde se evaluaron tres sub-áreas de estudio de interés de acuerdo a sus fuentes de contaminación. El análisis de HAPs fue realizado en muestras de sedimentos marinos y bivalvos (Anadara tuberculosa), adicionalmente se recolectaron muestras de agua marina para la caracterización fisicoquímica. Para el estudio de bivalvos se seleccionó la especie Anadara tuberculosa debido a su gran abundancia en el área de estudio y a su importancia comercial. En total se seleccionaron trece puntos de muestreo distribuidos así: siete en el área portuaria, cuatro en el área de desembocadura del río Rosario y dos en el área residencial. En cuatro puntos se realizó muestreo combinado de sedimentos marinos, Anadara tuberculosa y agua marina, en ocho puntos se realizó solo muestreo de sedimentos marinos y en un punto solo se obtuvieron muestras Anadara tuberculosa compradas a recolectores de bivalvos del área de desembocadura. Fueron recolectadas de 3 a 5 muestras de Anadara tuberculosa en cada punto de muestreo, dependiendo de la cantidad que fueran encontradas. El muestreo fue realizado el día 11 de septiembre de 2019 en dos períodos de bajamar. La metodología de muestreo para las diferentes matrices se basó en los siguientes protocolos analíticos: US-EPA 823-B-01-002, el protocolo analítico de INVEMAR y la guía de muestreo del Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMA). En sedimentos marinos, las más altas concentraciones de Ʃ16HAPs fueron encontradas en el área de la desembocadura del río Rosario, con un un valor de 76.2 ng g-1 en la muestra marina y un rango de 171.4 a 564 ng g-1 en las muestras estuarinas, seguida por el área portuaria con un rango de 15.5 a 77.5 ng g-1 y finalmente el área Residencial con un rango de 16.5 a 26.5 ng g-1. Asimismo, en Anadara tuberculosa las más altas concentraciones de Ʃ16HAPs fueron encontradas en el área de desembocadura del río Rosario, con un rango de 31 a 169 ng g-1, seguida por el área residencial con un rango de 78 a 157 ng g-1 y por último el área portuaria con un rango de 24 a 63 ng g-1. Ningunas de las concentraciones de Ʃ16HAPs en las muestras de sedimentos marinos analizadas superaron la norma establecida por la Administración Oceánica y Atmosférica Nacional de los Estados Unidos (NOAA) (1684.1 ng g-1). Sin embargo, la concentración de algunos HAPs individuales como fenantreno (98.7 ng g-1), fluoranteno (160.7 ng g-1) y pireno (292.5 ng g-1) en la muestra SD5 y, acenafteno (8.6 ng g-1) y fluoreno (24.1 ng g-1) en la muestra SD6, ambas muestras en el área desembocadura, superaron la norma establecida por la guía de calidad de sedimentos (SQG, por sus siglas en inglés) para la protección de la vida acuática de Canadá (fenantreno = 87 ng g-1, fluoranteno = 113 ng g-1, pireno = 153 ng g-1, acenafteno = 6.7 ng g-1 y fluoreno = 21 ng g-1). Las concentraciones en cuatro muestras de Anadara tuberculosa excedieron el límite regulatorio para consumo humano colombiano (35 ng g-1) y cinco muestras el límite regulatorio de la Unión Europea (30 ng g-1). Límites reportados como la sumatoria de cuatro HAPs Ʃ4HAPs: benzo(a)pireno, benzo(a)antraceno, benzo(b)fluoranteno y criseno. Relaciones diagnósticas de algunos HAPs isómeros (fluoranteno-pireno y antraceno-fenantreno) fueron aplicadas en sedimentos marinos para estimar las posibles fuentes de contaminación. Se encontró que ambas relaciones diagnósticas para las dos muestras recolectadas en el estuario de la desembocadura del río Rosario sugieren que los HAPs provienen de fuentes petrogénicas. Para la muestra recolectada en el área desembocadura más externa (más alejada del estuario) sugieren que los HAPs provienen de combustión de biomasa, carbón o madera. Mientras que para las muestras de las áreas portuaria y residencial sugieren una combinación de fuentes petrogénicas y de combustión. Los equivalentes carcinogénicos (EqT) y mutagénicos (EqM) fueron determinados para las muestras de sedimentos marinos y Anadara tuberculosa para evaluar el riesgo toxicológico. En sedimentos marinos los equivalentes tóxicos variaron entre 0.07 y 7.56 EqT-BaP, por lo tanto, ninguno de los EqT-BaP obtenidos excedieron el valor recomendado por la guía canadiense de calidad de suelo para HAPs (600 EqT-BaP). Asimismo, los equivalentes mutagénicos variaron entre 0.17 y 9.45 EqM-BaP. Por su parte en Anadara tuberculosa los equivalentes tóxicos variaron entre 0.11 y 5.01 EqT-BaP, de la misma manera, los equivalentes mutagénicos variaron entre 0.15 y 6.12 EqM-BaP. Debido a la problemática ambiental por el uso de solventes orgánicos que presentan la mayoría de los métodos analíticos para la determinación de HAPs en matrices ambientales, se usaron métodos con bajo consumo de solventes orgánicos como extracción miniaturizada por ultrasonido y dispersión de la matriz en fase sólida. Con base en la eco-escala de análisis verde, se determinó que los métodos usados en este estudio presentan un análisis verde excelente (eco-escala de 80) para el análisis de sedimentos y aceptable para el análisis de Anadara tuberculosa (eco-escala de 58). ; This work presents the concentrations of the 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) prioritized by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) in marine matrices of the Tumaco Bay on the Colombian Pacific coast. Three study sub-areas of interest were evaluated according to their sources of contamination. The analysis of PAHs was carried out in samples of marine sediments and bivalves (Anadara tuberculosa). Additionally, samples of marine water were collected for the physicochemical characterization. For the bivalve species, the Anadara tuberculosa specie was selected due to its great abundance in the study area and its commercial importance. In total, thirteen sampling points were selected, they were distributed as follows: seven in the port area, four in the Rosario river mouth area, and two in the residential area. Combined sampling of marine sediments, Anadara tuberculosa and seawater were carried out at four points, at eight points only sampling of marine sediments were carried out, and at one point only Anadara tuberculosa samples were obtained, purchased from bivalve collectors in the mouth area. From 3 to 5 samples of Anadara tuberculosa were collected at each sampling point, depending on the quantity that were found. The sampling campaign was carried out on September 11, 2019 in two periods of low tide. The methodology of the sampling, for the different matrices, was based on the following analytical protocols: US-EPA 823-B-01-002, INVEMAR analytical protocol and the sampling guide of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). In marine sediments, the highest concentrations of Ʃ16PAHs were found in the area of Rosario river mouth, with a value of 76.2 ng g-1 (marine sediments), and in the estuarine samples ranged from 171.4 to 564 ng g-1; followed by the port area ranged from 15.5 to 77.5 ng g-1 and finally the Residential area ranged from 16.5 to 26.5 ng g-1. Likewise, in Anadara tuberculosa the highest concentrations of Ʃ16PAHs were found in the Rosario river mouth, ranged from 31 to 169 ng g-1, followed by the residential area with ranged of 78 to 157 ng g-1 and the port area ranged from 24 to 63 ng g-1. No concentrations of Ʃ16PAHs in the analyzed marine sediment samples exceeded the regulatory limit established by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (1684.1 ng g-1). However, the concentration of individual PAHs of two samples located in the river mouth area exceeded the standard established by the sediments quality guides (SQG) for the protection of aquatic life in Canada (phenanthrene =87 ng g-1, fluoranthene = 113 ng g-1, pyrene = 153 ng g-1, acenaphthene = 6.7 ng g-1 and fluorine = 21 ng g-1). These samples are SD5 and SD6, which had higher concentrations of these congeners such as phenantrene (98.7 ng g-1), fluoranthene (160.7 ng g-1) and pyrene (292.5 ng g-1) in the SD5 sample, and acenaphthene (8.6 ng g-1) and fluorene (24.1 ng g-1) in sample SD6. The concentrations of four samples of Anadara tuberculosa exceeded the regulatory limit of Colombia for human consumption (35 ng g-1) and five samples the regulatory limit of the European Union for human consumption (30 ng g-1). Limits reported as the sum of four PAHs Ʃ4PAHs: benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and chrysene. Diagnostic relationships of some isomeric PAHs (fluoranthene-pyrene and anthracene-phenanthrene) were applied in marine sediments to estimate possible sources of contamination. It was found that the diagnostic relationships, for the two samples collected in the estuary of the Rosario river mouth, suggest that the PAHs come from petrogenic sources. For the sample collected in river mouth more external (farthest from the estuary) suggest that the PAHs come from combustion of biomass, coal, or wood. While for the samples from the port and residential areas suggest a combination of petrogenic and combustion sources. Carcinogenic (TEQ) and mutagenic (MEQ) equivalents were determined for marine sediment samples and Anadara tuberculosa to assess toxicological risk. In marine sediments, toxic equivalents ranged from 0.07 to 7.56 BaP-TEQ, therefore, no BaP-TEQ obtained exceeded the value recommended by the Canadian soil quality guide for PAHs (600 BaP-TEQ). Likewise, mutagenic equivalents ranged from 0.17 to 9.45 BaP-MEQ. On the other hand, in Anadara tuberculosa the BaP-TEQ the TEQ ranged from 0.11 to 5.01 BaP-TEQ. Additionally, the BaP-MEQ ranged from 1.5 to 61.2 BaP-MEQ. Due to the environmental problems due to the use of organic solvents that most analytical methods present for the determination of PAHs in environmental matrices, methods with low consumption of organic solvents were used such as miniaturized extraction by ultrasound and dispersion of the matrix in solid phase. Based on the eco-scale for assessing the greenness of analytical procedures, it was determined that the methods used in this study present an excellent green analysis for sediment analysis (eco-scale 80) and acceptable for the analysis of Anadara tuberculosa (eco-scale 58). ; Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Manizales ; Líquenes como potenciales indicadores pasivos de la contaminación atmosférica ; Trabajo final de maestría presentado como requisito para optar al título de: Magister en Ingeniería – Ingeniería Ambiental. -- Grupo de Investigación: Grupo de Trabajo Académico en Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental – GTAIHA. ; Maestría
Aquest treball a fi de Màster, conté l'inventari d'emissions de diòxid de carboni, òxids de nitrogen, òxids de sofre, monòxid de carboni i hidrocarburs totals i combustible consumit, dels vols que parteixen des de l'aeroport internacional El Dorada en Bogotà Colòmbia durant els anys 2009 a 2019 d'acord a lo establer per al document EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019, específicament el volum 1.A.3. a Aviation, addicionalment es va realitzar una projecció del consum de combustible i emissions de diòxid de carboni fins l'any 2050 d'acord a cinc escenaris plantejats pel Comitè de Protecció Ambiental pertanyent a l'Organització Internacional d'Aviació Civil. La informació que s'ha utilitzat per a l'inventari d'emissions, va se la base de dades tràfic per equip de la Aeronàutica Civil, aquesta base de dades conté el registre d'operacions de tots els aeroports de Colòmbia, tan de vols comercials com privats a diferents nacionals i internacionals. Cada base de dades pot contenir més d'un milió d'observacions anuals dels registres aeris colombians i per poder fer l'inventari d'emissions, va ser necessari fer una desagregació de les dades i una agrupació de les variables rellevants utilitzant els software lliure RStudio. Els resultats del inventari d'emissions són reportats per a vols nacionals i internacionals de manera separada, tal com ho estableix la metodologia de la guia. La informació obtinguda del inventari d'emissions, va ser utilitzada com a línia base per a la projecció de tendències de les emissions de diòxid de carboni i consum de combustible fins l'any 2050 per cinc escenaris diferents, tenint en compte diferents pronòstics del creixement de la operació aèria colombiana i establint metes anuals d'estalvi de combustible i eficiència operacional, les quals són claus per aconseguir la reducció de les emissions de diòxid de carboni. El principal gas emès d'acord al inventari d'emissions és el diòxid de carboni, durant els anys 2009 a 2019 es van emetre 25689 kt de CO2, seguidament de 121 kt de NOX, 28 kt de CO, 16 kt de SOX i 7,3 kt de HC, els vols internacionals van emetre el 74% del total del diòxid de carboni, a pesar que el nombre de vols és inferior respecte als vols a destins nacionals. Les emissions de diòxid de carboni tenen una correlació positiva de 0,99 amb el consum de combustible i la distància recorreguda de les aeronaus. Els avions amb destins internacionals recorren majors distàncies que els avions amb destins nacionals, per lo tant, les seves emissions de CO2 son més altes. Els destins turístics a Colòmbia i les capitals de Departament, són els trajectes que més CO2 emeten, en quant destins internacionals, els trajectes a Bogotà-Miami, Bogotà-Mèxic D.F. són els que més emissions de CO2 presenten. En quant a les tendències de les emissions de CO2, es van realitzar d'acord a cinc escenaris, l'escenari 1 o escenari base, mostra les emissions de diòxid de carboni fins al 2050 quan l'operació aèria no realitza millores operacionals o de eficiència de combustible i per altra banda, l'escenari 5 o escenari optimista te metes ambicioses per aconseguir una alta eficiència en el combustible i millores operacionals. Els escenaris 2 i 3 són els que millor poden predir el comportament que tindrà les emissions de CO2, degut a que les metes proposades són les implementades actualment per una línia aèria colombiana i no suposen grans inversions econòmiques o modificacions considerables en l'operació. Aquest inventari conté les emissions generals per vols privats i comercials de transport de passatgers, carga i correspondència realitzats des del aeroport el Dorado, i inclouen destins a aeroports principals, però també aeròdroms i pistes d'aterratge privades, les emissions són calculades per al trajecte realitzat per cada aeronau, des de la porta de la sortida d'abordatge de passatgers a l'aeroport d'origen, fins al punt d'arribada on s'apaga motors a l'aeroport de destí, però no inclou les emissions generades per les operacions auxiliars com la càrrega de combustible, transport per pistes de passatgers en autobusos o manteniment de les aeronaus, així com tampoc les emissions generades per l'aviació militar o vols d'helicòpters, ja que aquestes emissions s'han de reportar per separat mitjançant un altra metodologia. ; This Master's thesis contains the inventory of emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons and fuel consumed, of the flights that departed from the El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá Colombia during years 2009 to 2019 according with the document EMEP / EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019, specifically volume 1.A.3.a Aviation, additionally a projection of fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions was made until 2050 according to five scenarios established by the Environmental Protection Committee belonging to the International Civil Aviation Organization. The information that was used for the emissions inventory was the traffic database by the Aeronautica Civil, this database contains the operation records of all Colombian airports, both commercial and private flights to national destinations and international. Each database contains more than one million observations per year from the Colombian air registers and in order to make the emissions inventory, it was necessary to disaggregate the data and group the relevant variables using RStudio software. The results of the emissions inventory are reported for national and international flights separately, as stated in the guide's methodology. The information obtained from the emissions inventory was used as a baseline for the projection of trends in carbon dioxide emissions and fuel consumption until 2050 for five different scenarios, taking into account different forecasts of the growth of the Colombian air operation. and establishing annual goals for fuel savings and operational efficiency, which are key to achieving the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. The main gas emitted according to the emissions inventory is carbon dioxide, during the years 2009 to 2019 25689 ktCO2 were emitted, followed by 121 ktNOx, 28 ktCO, 16 ktSOx and 7.3 ktHC, international flights emitted 74% of total carbon dioxide, although that the number of flights is lower compared to flights to domestic destinations. Carbon dioxide emissions have a positive correlation of 0.99 with fuel consumption and distance traveled by aircraft. Airplanes with international destinations travel longer distances than airplanes with national destinations, therefore, their CO2 emissions are higher. The tourist destinations in Colombia and the capitals of the Department are the routes that emit the most CO2, in terms of international destinations, the routes to Bogotá-Miami, Bogotá-Madrid and Bogotá-México D.F. they are the ones with the most CO2 emissions. Regarding CO2 emission trends, they were carried out according to five scenarios, scenario 1 or baseline scenario, shows carbon dioxide emissions until 2050 when the air operation does not make operational or fuel efficiency improvements and Moreover, scenario 5 or optimistic scenario has ambitious goals to achieve high fuel efficiency and improved operations. Scenarios 2 and 3 are the ones that can best predict the behavior that CO2 emissions will have, since the proposed goals are those currently implemented by an airline in Colombia and do not involve large economic investments or considerable modifications in the operation. This inventory contains the emissions generated by private and commercial flights for the transport of passengers, cargo and correspondence made from El Dorado airport, and include destinations to major airports, but also private airfields and airstrips, emissions are calculated for the journey made for each aircraft, from the departure gate for passenger boarding at the origin airport, to the arrival point where the aircraft turns off the engines at the destination airport, but does not include emissions generated by auxiliary operations such as fuel loading, transportation by passenger lanes in buses or aircraft maintenance, as well as emissions generated by military aviation or helicopter flights, since these emissions must be reported separately using another methodology Keywords: Atmospheric emissions, aviation, emission trends, scenarios, emissions ; Este trabajo de fin de Máster, contiene el inventario de emisiones de dióxido de carbono, óxidos de nitrógeno, óxidos de azufre, monóxido de carbono e hidrocarburos totales y combustible consumido, de los vuelos que partieron desde el aeropuerto internacional El Dorado en Bogotá Colombia durante los años 2009 a 2019 de acuerdo a lo establecido por el documento EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook 2019, específicamente el volumen 1.A.3.a Aviation, adicionalmente se realizó una proyección del consumo de combustible y emisiones de dióxido de carbono hasta el año 2050 de acuerdo a cinco escenarios planteados por el Comité de Protección Ambiental perteneciente a la Organización Internacional de la Aviación Civil. La información que se utilizó para el inventario de emisiones, fue la base de datos tráfico por equipo de la Aeronautica Civil, esta base de datos contiene los registro de operaciones de todos los aeropuertos de Colombia, tanto de vuelos comerciales como privados a destinos nacionales e internacionales. Cada base de datos puede contener más de un millón de observaciones anuales de los registros aéreos colombianos y para poder hacer el inventario de emisiones, fue necesario hacer una desagregación de los datos y una agrupación de las variables relevantes utilizando el software libre RStudio. Los resultados del inventario de emisiones son reportados para vuelos nacionales e internacionales de forma separada, tal como lo establece la metodología de la guía. La información obtenida del inventario de emisiones, fue utilizada como linea base para la proyección de tendencias de las emisiones de dióxido de carbono y consumo de combustible hasta el año 2050 para cinco escenarios diferentes, teniendo en cuenta diferentes pronósticos del crecimiento de la operación aérea colombiana y estableciendo metas anuales de ahorro de combustible y eficiencia operacional, las cuales son claves para lograr la reducción de las emisiónes de dióxido de carbono. El principal gas emitido de acuerdo al inventario de emisiones es el dióxido de carbono, durante los años 2009 a 2019 se emitieron 25689 kt de CO2, seguido de 121 kt de NOx, 28 kt de CO, 16 kt de SOx y 7,3 kt de HC, los vuelos internacionales emitieron el 74% del total del dióxido de carbono, pese a que el número de vuelos es inferior con respecto a los vuelos a destinos nacionales. Las emisiones de dióxido de carbono tienen una correlación positiva de 0,99 con el consumo de combustible y la distancia recorrida de las aeronaves. Los aviones con destinos internacionales recorren mayores distancias que los aviones con destinos nacionales, por lo tanto, sus emisiones de CO2 son más altas. Los destinos turísticos en Colombia y las capitales de Departamento, son los trayectos que más CO2 emiten, en cuanto a destinos internacionales, los trayectos a Bogotá-Miami, Bogotá-Madrid y Bogotá-México D.F. son los que más emisiones de CO2 presentan. En cuanto a las tendencias de las emisiones de CO2, se realizaron de acuerdo a cinco escenarios, el escenario 1 o escenario base, muestra las emisiones de dióxido de carbono hasta el 2050 cuando la operación aérea no realiza mejoras operacionales o de eficiencia de combustible y por otra parte, el escenario 5 o escenario optimista tiene metas ambiciosas para lograr un alta eficiencia en el combustible y mejoras operaciones. Los escenarios 2 y 3 son los que mejor pueden predecir el comportamiento que tendrán las emisiones de CO2, debido a que las metas propuestas son las implementadas actualmente por una aerolínea en Colombia y no suponen grandes inversiones económicas o modificaciones considerables en la operación. Este inventario contiene las emisiones generadas por vuelos privados y comerciales de transporte de pasajeros, carga y correspondencia realizados desde el aeropuerto el Dorado, e incluyen destinos a aeropuertos principales, pero también aeródromos y pistas de aterrizaje privadas, las emisiones son calculadadas para el trayecto realizado por cada aeronave, desde la puerta de salida de abordaje de pasajeros en el aeropuerto de origen, hasta el punto de llegada donde apaga motores la aeronave en el aeropuerto de destino, pero no incluye las emisiones generadas por las operaciones auxiliares como cargue de combustible, transporte por pistas de pasajeros en autobuses o mantenimiento de las aeronaves, así como tampoco las emisiones generadas por la aviación militar o vuelos de helicópteros, ya que estas emisiones se deben reportar por separado mediante otra metodología.
