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The effects of economies of scale in government, trade openness, preference heterogeneity, and regime type are used to explain why the average size of states within the international system nearly doubled between 1816 and 1876 and then contracted over the 20th century. No one variable appears to explain the trend fully. Results suggest that the rise in territorial size during the 19th century is the product of a growing number of federal democracies, which tend to be large, and that the decline in average size during the 20th century is the result of a growing number of unitary democracies, which tend to be small. Increasing economies of scale in the 19th century may have led to the rise of large federal democracies, whereas economic liberalism may have allowed unitary democracies to prosper in the 20th century.

Traditional techniques used to study political engagement—interviews, ethnographic research, surveys—rely on collection of data at a single or a few points in time and/or from a small sample of political actors. They lead to a tendency in the literature to focus on "snapshots" of political engagement (as in the analysis of a single survey) or draw from a very limited set of sources (as in most small group ethnographic work and interviewing). Studying political engagement through analysis of social media data allows scholars to better understand the political engagement of millions of people by examining individuals' views on politics in their own voices. While social media analysis has important limitations, it provides the opportunity to see detailed "video" of political engagement over time that provides an important complement to traditional methods. We illustrate this point by drawing on social media data analysis of the protests and election in Thailand from October 2013 through February 2014.

Preface --Figures --Summary --Acknowledgments --Abbreviations --1.Introduction:Persistent, Networked, and Distributed Special Operations --The Research Question, Approach, and Organization --2.Identified Operational Challenges:Approach --Findings --3.Implications for Persistent, Networked, and Distributed Special Operations:Enhanced Theater Special Operations Commands --Greater Forward-Deployed Personnel Presence --Enhanced Interagency and Allied Partner-Nation Partnerships --Final Observations --APPENDIX:Persistent-Presence Special Operations Forces Small Teams --References.

The 2018 U.S. National Defense Strategy instructed the U.S. military to become more operationally unpredictable and suggested that doing so would help the United States deter attacks on U.S. partners. The authors of this report propose a definition of U.S. operational unpredictability-adversary uncertainty about how the United States would fight; develop four potential approaches for increasing U.S. operational unpredictability and deterring attacks on U.S. allies and partners; and assess how the four approaches could affect U.S. relations with Russia and China. They also examine two Cold War-era cases in which the United States sought to be more operationally unpredictable. The authors find that increasing adversaries' perceptions of U.S. operational unpredictability may be possible if the United States has detailed information about their operational analysis and decisionmaking processes. The most promising way to increase U.S. operational unpredictability is to publicize new U.S. capabilities and demonstrate that they give the United States multiple options for achieving its key objectives. However, increasing U.S. operational unpredictability may be costly and, in some cases, involve negative side effects (e.g., reducing U.S. military effectiveness and increasing China's and Russia's threat perceptions). The authors recommend weighing the potential costs and effectiveness of these approaches against more traditional approaches to deterring U.S. adversaries

Considerations -- Analysis of Alternatives -- Recommendations from the Analysis of Alternatives -- Early Stages of Army Interoperability Measurement System Development -- Concluding Remarks -- Appendix A: Analysis of Alternatives Questions List -- Appendix B: Completed Questions List for All Considered Alternatives -- Appendix C: ART Level I and Level II Tasks Included in AIMS Instruments -- Appendix D: Interoperability in Army Mission Essential Tasks -- Appendix E: Computing Priority Force Area Interoperability Levels.

History, challenges, and concerns -- The integration of women and other excluded groups into the U.S. military the historical experience -- Physical ability and stress response differences between men and women -- The potential implications of women's integration on unit cohesion -- The expectations of SOF personnel regarding potentially integrating women into SOF units -- The women in SOF survey -- Insights from the focus groups -- Potential future pathways -- A framework for establishing gender-neutral standards for special operations forces -- Observations and implications.