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Established by the Kyoto protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developed countries to meet part of their commitments to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions (GHGE) by investing in projects carried out in developing countries. So, developed countries can receive certified emissions reduction corresponding to the volume of GHGE avoided or reduced in developing countries, and developing countries can claim a clean development. The use of CDM has drawn a lot of criticism and even controversies: unproven GHGE reduction, weak transfer of clean technologies, uneven geographical and sectoral distribution of projects, lack of sustainable development that CDM projects are expected to generate in developing countries, etc.This paper identifies and assesses these criticisms, using two newsletters reporting on the implementation of CDM projects in the world (Nouvelles Francophones du marché du carbone et du MDP, and Moniteur du MDP et de la Mise en Oeuvre Conjointe). Criticisms identified and assessed were confronted with expert opinions of two International Non Governmental Organisations (INGO) specialised on the monitoring of the CDM implementation: CDM Watch and NOE 21. Interviews with managers of these INGO have permitted to evaluate the relevance of criticisms and the purpose and scope of the CDM. The results of this study raise questions about the effectiveness and the efficiency of the CDM, and about reforms proposed to ensure a better contribution of this mechanism to efforts to reduce GHGE. ; Institué par le protocole de Kyoto, le Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP) permet aux pays développés de remplir une partie de leurs engagements de réduction de leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre (EGES) dans le cadre de projets réalisés dans des pays en développement. De la sorte, les pays développés peuvent être crédités d'EGES correspondant au volume évité ou réduit dans des pays en développement, et les pays en développement peuvent se targuer de se développer « proprement ». L'utilisation ...

Localisation : Centre de documentation P. Bartoli, UMR LAMETA, Montpellier (S WPL 2011-01) ; Safeguarding tropical rainforests is one of the most important challenges for the future, particularly to mitigate climate change. The international community has actively sought international policy solutions to curb deforestation in tropical countries. Debt-for-nature swaps and certification of sustainable forest management have been implemented by NGOs. Some states are currently negotiating the implementation of the REDD (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) mechanism, a North-South financial transfer to compensate countries for avoided deforestation. However, little is known about the efficiency of these instruments. We argue that they may have a double effect: an expected direct impact on deforestation linked to the conditionalities of instruments, and an indirect impact due to their feedback effects on macroeconomic variables, affecting in turn the drivers of deforestation. The second effect is often overlooked by policy makers. The objective of the paper is to disentangle the two effects for different categories of forest countries. We conducted a panel data analysis for the period 1990-2005 and show that cluster analysis of tropical forest countries would be more relevant if it were based on relative forest endowment. On the basis of econometric results, we can recommend differentiating policy instruments according to the relative forest abundance of each country. Debt reduction programs contribute to the reduction of deforestation in all countries. Countries with abundant forests are locked in a development pathway based on overexploitation of their forests making them less responsive to incentive measures. In countries with average forest endowment, we recommend output-based REDD, whereas in countries with low forest cover, either inputbased or output-based REDD mechanisms should be efficient.

Localisation : Centre de documentation P. Bartoli, UMR LAMETA, Montpellier (S WPL 2011-01) ; Safeguarding tropical rainforests is one of the most important challenges for the future, particularly to mitigate climate change. The international community has actively sought international policy solutions to curb deforestation in tropical countries. Debt-for-nature swaps and certification of sustainable forest management have been implemented by NGOs. Some states are currently negotiating the implementation of the REDD (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) mechanism, a North-South financial transfer to compensate countries for avoided deforestation. However, little is known about the efficiency of these instruments. We argue that they may have a double effect: an expected direct impact on deforestation linked to the conditionalities of instruments, and an indirect impact due to their feedback effects on macroeconomic variables, affecting in turn the drivers of deforestation. The second effect is often overlooked by policy makers. The objective of the paper is to disentangle the two effects for different categories of forest countries. We conducted a panel data analysis for the period 1990-2005 and show that cluster analysis of tropical forest countries would be more relevant if it were based on relative forest endowment. On the basis of econometric results, we can recommend differentiating policy instruments according to the relative forest abundance of each country. Debt reduction programs contribute to the reduction of deforestation in all countries. Countries with abundant forests are locked in a development pathway based on overexploitation of their forests making them less responsive to incentive measures. In countries with average forest endowment, we recommend output-based REDD, whereas in countries with low forest cover, either inputbased or output-based REDD mechanisms should be efficient.

Localisation : Centre de documentation P. Bartoli, UMR LAMETA, Montpellier (S WPL 2011-01) ; Safeguarding tropical rainforests is one of the most important challenges for the future, particularly to mitigate climate change. The international community has actively sought international policy solutions to curb deforestation in tropical countries. Debt-for-nature swaps and certification of sustainable forest management have been implemented by NGOs. Some states are currently negotiating the implementation of the REDD (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) mechanism, a North-South financial transfer to compensate countries for avoided deforestation. However, little is known about the efficiency of these instruments. We argue that they may have a double effect: an expected direct impact on deforestation linked to the conditionalities of instruments, and an indirect impact due to their feedback effects on macroeconomic variables, affecting in turn the drivers of deforestation. The second effect is often overlooked by policy makers. The objective of the paper is to disentangle the two effects for different categories of forest countries. We conducted a panel data analysis for the period 1990-2005 and show that cluster analysis of tropical forest countries would be more relevant if it were based on relative forest endowment. On the basis of econometric results, we can recommend differentiating policy instruments according to the relative forest abundance of each country. Debt reduction programs contribute to the reduction of deforestation in all countries. Countries with abundant forests are locked in a development pathway based on overexploitation of their forests making them less responsive to incentive measures. In countries with average forest endowment, we recommend output-based REDD, whereas in countries with low forest cover, either inputbased or output-based REDD mechanisms should be efficient.

National audience. This article provides a summary of the literature on unitary root panel tests. Two main developments can be highlighted in this research path since the founding work of Levin and Lin (1992). On the one hand, there has been a trend since the late 90s to take account of the heterogeneity of the dynamic properties of the series studied, in particular with the work of Im, Pesaran and Shin (1997) and Maddala and Wu (1999). On the other hand, a second type of recent developments in this literature tends to introduce a dichotomy between two generations of tests: the first generation is based on an assumption of independence between individuals, which seems implausible, particularly in the case of certain macroeconomic applications. The second generation, currently under development, incorporates various possible forms of interpersonal dependencies (Bai and Ng (2001), Phillips and Sul (2003a), Moon and Perron (2004), Choi (2002), Pesaran (2003) and Chang (2002)). These two generations of tests are presented in this literature review. ; This article proposes an overview of the recent developments relating to panel unit root tests. After a brief review of the first generation panel unit root tests, this paper focuses on the tests belonging to the second generation. The latter category of tests is characterized by the rejection of the cross-sectional independence hypothesis. Within this second generation of tests, two main approaches are distinguished. The first one relies on the factor structure approach and includes the contributions of Bai and Ng (2001), Phillips and Sul (2003a), Moon and Perron (2004a), Choi (2002) and Pesaran (2003) among others. The second approach consists in imposing few or none restrictions on the residuals covariance matrix and has been adopted notably by Chang (2002, 2004), who proposed the use of nonlinear instrumental variables methods or the use of bootstrap approaches to solve the nuisanceparameter problem due to cross-sectional dependency. ; National audience. This ...

Diffusion du document : publique Diplôme : Dr. d'Université ; International economic instruments for the reduction of tropical deforestation: the example of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation). Abstract: Curbing deforestation in tropical countries is one of the main current challenges for international community in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Indeed, deforestation is the second leading cause of greenhouse gas emissions just behind industrial emissions. Since 2005, a new instrument to slow down CO2 emissions from tropical deforestation is under negotiations at the UNFCCC. This mechanism, called REDD+ (for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) is supported by a simple principle: it consists to reward developing countries for their efforts to avoid deforestation. However, the national and international implementations of REDD+ raise lot of methodological questions and meet several hurdles. The aims of the thesis are twofold. First, it proposes a description and an analysis of the REDD+ mechanism. Second, it is composed by three essays, which raise some questions about REDD+ design and implementation, in order to offer new perspectives on this mechanism. The first essay develops a game-theoretic bargaining model, simulating the on-going negotiation process over the REDD+ mechanism. It shows that the conditions under which developing countries are left to bargain over the allocation of the global forest fund may lead to an ineffective system of incentives. The second essay used a panel data analysis to reveal contrasted deforestation behaviors of tropical countries according to their relative endowment in forest cover. The aim of the third essay offered an illustration of REDD+ implementation, comparing the outcomes in terms of avoided deforestation and utility of two payments for environmental services designs for two types of governments. The model developed in this article is applied in the Indonesian context of deforestation, ...

Diffusion du document : publique Diplôme : Dr. d'Université ; International economic instruments for the reduction of tropical deforestation: the example of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation). Abstract: Curbing deforestation in tropical countries is one of the main current challenges for international community in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Indeed, deforestation is the second leading cause of greenhouse gas emissions just behind industrial emissions. Since 2005, a new instrument to slow down CO2 emissions from tropical deforestation is under negotiations at the UNFCCC. This mechanism, called REDD+ (for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) is supported by a simple principle: it consists to reward developing countries for their efforts to avoid deforestation. However, the national and international implementations of REDD+ raise lot of methodological questions and meet several hurdles. The aims of the thesis are twofold. First, it proposes a description and an analysis of the REDD+ mechanism. Second, it is composed by three essays, which raise some questions about REDD+ design and implementation, in order to offer new perspectives on this mechanism. The first essay develops a game-theoretic bargaining model, simulating the on-going negotiation process over the REDD+ mechanism. It shows that the conditions under which developing countries are left to bargain over the allocation of the global forest fund may lead to an ineffective system of incentives. The second essay used a panel data analysis to reveal contrasted deforestation behaviors of tropical countries according to their relative endowment in forest cover. The aim of the third essay offered an illustration of REDD+ implementation, comparing the outcomes in terms of avoided deforestation and utility of two payments for environmental services designs for two types of governments. The model developed in this article is applied in the Indonesian context of deforestation, ...

Diffusion du document : publique Diplôme : Dr. d'Université ; International economic instruments for the reduction of tropical deforestation: the example of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation). Abstract: Curbing deforestation in tropical countries is one of the main current challenges for international community in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Indeed, deforestation is the second leading cause of greenhouse gas emissions just behind industrial emissions. Since 2005, a new instrument to slow down CO2 emissions from tropical deforestation is under negotiations at the UNFCCC. This mechanism, called REDD+ (for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) is supported by a simple principle: it consists to reward developing countries for their efforts to avoid deforestation. However, the national and international implementations of REDD+ raise lot of methodological questions and meet several hurdles. The aims of the thesis are twofold. First, it proposes a description and an analysis of the REDD+ mechanism. Second, it is composed by three essays, which raise some questions about REDD+ design and implementation, in order to offer new perspectives on this mechanism. The first essay develops a game-theoretic bargaining model, simulating the on-going negotiation process over the REDD+ mechanism. It shows that the conditions under which developing countries are left to bargain over the allocation of the global forest fund may lead to an ineffective system of incentives. The second essay used a panel data analysis to reveal contrasted deforestation behaviors of tropical countries according to their relative endowment in forest cover. The aim of the third essay offered an illustration of REDD+ implementation, comparing the outcomes in terms of avoided deforestation and utility of two payments for environmental services designs for two types of governments. The model developed in this article is applied in the Indonesian context of deforestation, thanks to a database supplied by the NGO Conservation International. ; Réduire la déforestation dans les pays tropicaux est un des principaux défis pour la communauté internationale dans le cadre du processus de négociations de la Convention Cadre des Nations Unies sur le Changement Climatique (CCNUCC). En effet, la déforestation est la seconde source d'émissions de gaz à effets de serre, juste derrière les émissions industrielles. Depuis 2005, un nouvel instrument international pour réduire les émissions de carbone liées à la déforestation tropicale est en négociation à la CCNUCC. Ce mécanisme, appelé REDD+ (Réduction des Emissions liées à la Déforestation et Dégradation des forêts) repose sur un système de compensation financière des pays en développement pour leurs efforts en termes de déforestation évitée. Cependant, la mise en oeuvre du mécanisme REDD+ à l'échelle nationale et internationale soulève de nombreux problèmes méthodologiques et rencontre de nombreux obstacles. Le but de la thèse est double. Dans une première partie, une description et une analyse du mécanisme REDD+ est réalisée. Dans une deuxième partie, de nouvelles perspectives concernant le design du mécanisme REDD+ et sur sa mise en oeuvre sont offertes, en se basant sur trois essais rédigés en format article. Le premier essai propose un modèle de théorie des jeux reflétant le processus de négociation Nord-Sud du mécanisme REDD. Il étudie les conditions régissant le partage de fonds entre les pays en développement et leurs impacts sur l'efficacité du système d'incitations. Le deuxième essai utilise un modèle en économétrie de panel pour différencier des comportements nationaux de déforestation selon la dotation relative en forêts de chaque pays. Le troisième essai s'intéresse à la mise en oeuvre du mécanisme REDD+, en comparant les résultats de deux programmes de paiement pour services environnementaux pour deux types de gouvernements. Le modèle développé dans cet essai est ensuite testé dans le contexte de la déforestation en Indonésie, grâce à une base de données fournie par l'ONG Conservation International.

The article aims to determine the impacts of a policy to reduce pollutant emissions as part of a model of a small open economy, comprising two regions and two sectors, with endogenous growth. One of the two sectors is relatively more polluting and one of the two regions is more specialised in the production of this sector. The impact of environmental policy on the sectors depends crucially on their respective growth rates, which in turn depend on their respective initial capital injections. A priori counter-intuitive results are possible. If the growth rate of the polluting intensive sector is sufficiently low and inversely for the other sector, then the relatively more polluting sector is less affected by environmental policy than the other sector. Similarly, the region most specialised in producing the polluting good is less affected by emission reduction policy than the other region, if it is characterised by sufficiently low sectoral growth rates compared to the other region. ; L'article vise à déterminer les impacts d'une politique de réduction des émissions polluantes dans le cadre d'un modèle d'une petite économie ouverte, comprenant deux régions et deux secteurs, avec croissance endogène. L'un des deux secteurs est relativement plus polluant et l'une des deux régions est plus spécialisée dans la production de ce secteur. L'impact de la politique environnementale sur les secteurs dépend crucialement de leurs taux de croissance respectifs, qui dépendent à leur tour de leurs dotations initiales de capital respectives. Des résultats a priori contre-intuitifs sont possibles. Si le taux de croissance du secteur intensif en émissions polluantes est suffisamment faible et inversément pour l'autre secteur, alors le secteur relativement plus polluant est moins affecté par la politique environnementale que l'autre secteur. De même, la région la plus spécialisée dans la production du bien polluant est moins affectée que l'autre région par la politique de réduction des émissions, si elle se caractérise par des taux ...

The objective of this study is to present a set of essays on key financial development indicators and their impact on economic growth in African countries. We use panel data from 40 African countries (11 low-income countries and 29 middle-income countries) over the period 1980-2019. The results obtained with the application of regressions taking into account the fixed effects, show that financial development measured by bank credit to GDP (CSP(%GDP) and the ratio of money supply in the sense of M3 to GDP (M3/GDP), does not improve economic growth in African economies. On the one hand, access to bank credit remains a problem for all African countries, and on the other hand, further reforming African financial systems based on financial inclusion would help promote economic growth on the continent. Indeed, the realization of the crucial importance of an efficient and effective financial system in supporting and sustaining economic growth efforts has led all countries, developed and poor alike and regardless of their geographical location, to try to make the best use of it, taking care to adopt strategies and policies that they consider to be the most effective. This awareness is based on the assumption that as the financial sector develops, it can lead to real sector development. The empirical evidence in our study also shows that poor key financial development indicators do not improve economic growth in African economies. Ultimately, financial system development can only be an asset if the other determinants of economic growth are there and vice versa. JEL Classification : C23, F43, O47 Type of paper : Applied research ; L'objectif de cette étude est de présenter un ensemble d'essais relatifs aux principaux indicateurs de développement financier et leur impact sur la croissance économique des pays africains. Nous utilisons des données de panel de 40 pays africains ((11 pays à revenus faibles et 29 pays à revenus intermédiaires) sur la période 1980-2019. Les résultats obtenus avec l'application des régressions en prenant en compte les effets fixes, montrent que le développement financier mesuré par le crédit bancaire par rapport au PIB (CSP(%PIB) et le ratio de la masse monétaire au sens de M3 par rapport au PIB (M3/PIB), n'améliore pas la croissance économique des économies africaines. D'une part, l'accès aux crédits bancaires reste une problématique pour tous les pays africains, d'autre part, réformer davantage les systèmes financiers africains basés sur l'inclusion financière serait un apport à la promotion de la croissance économique du continent. En effet, la prise de conscience de l'importance capitale d'un système financier efficace et performant dans l'appui et le soutien aux efforts de la croissance économique, a fait que tous les pays, qu'ils soient développés ou pauvres et quelques soient leurs positions géographiques, essayent de l'exploiter au mieux, en prenant soin d'adopter des stratégies et des politiques qui leur semblent les plus efficaces. Cette prise de conscience repose sur l'hypothèse selon laquelle, le secteur financier peut, en se développant, entraîner un développement du secteur réel. Ensuite, l'étude empirique de notre étude montre aussi qu'une médiocrité des principaux indicateurs de développement financier n'améliore pas la croissance économique des économies africaines. Enfin, le développement du système financier ne peut être un atout que si les autres déterminants de la croissance économique sont là et vice versa. Classification JEL : C23, F43, O47 Type de l'article: Recherche appliquée

International audience ; On behalf of the struggle against climate change: the Clean Development Mechanism and its drifts Established by the Kyoto protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developed countries to meet part of their commitments to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions (GHGE) by investing in projects carried out in developing countries. So, developed countries can receive certified emissions reduction corresponding to the volume of GHGE avoided or reduced in developing countries, and developing countries can claim a clean development. The use of CDM has drawn a lot of criticism and even controversies: unproven GHGE reduction, weak transfer of clean technologies, uneven geographical and sectoral distribution of projects, lack of sustainable development that CDM projects are expected to generate in developing countries, etc. This paper identifies and assesses these criticisms, using two newsletters reporting on the implementation of CDM projects in the world (Nouvelles Francophones du marché du carbone et du MDP, and Moniteur du MDP et de la Mise en Œuvre Conjointe). Criticisms identified and assessed were confronted with expert opinions of two International Non Governmental Organisations (INGO) specialised on the monitoring of the CDM implementation: CDM Watch and NOE 21. Interviews with managers of these INGO have permitted to evaluate the relevance of criticisms and the purpose and scope of the CDM. The results of this study raise questions about the effectiveness and the efficiency of the CDM, and about reforms proposed to ensure a better contribution of this mechanism to efforts to reduce GHGE. ; Institué par le protocole de Kyoto, le Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP) permet aux pays développés de remplir une partie de leurs engagements de réduction de leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre (EGES) dans le cadre de projets réalisés dans des pays en développement. De la sorte, les pays développés peuvent être crédités d'EGES correspondant au volume évité ou réduit dans ...

International audience ; On behalf of the struggle against climate change: the Clean Development Mechanism and its drifts Established by the Kyoto protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developed countries to meet part of their commitments to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions (GHGE) by investing in projects carried out in developing countries. So, developed countries can receive certified emissions reduction corresponding to the volume of GHGE avoided or reduced in developing countries, and developing countries can claim a clean development. The use of CDM has drawn a lot of criticism and even controversies: unproven GHGE reduction, weak transfer of clean technologies, uneven geographical and sectoral distribution of projects, lack of sustainable development that CDM projects are expected to generate in developing countries, etc. This paper identifies and assesses these criticisms, using two newsletters reporting on the implementation of CDM projects in the world (Nouvelles Francophones du marché du carbone et du MDP, and Moniteur du MDP et de la Mise en Œuvre Conjointe). Criticisms identified and assessed were confronted with expert opinions of two International Non Governmental Organisations (INGO) specialised on the monitoring of the CDM implementation: CDM Watch and NOE 21. Interviews with managers of these INGO have permitted to evaluate the relevance of criticisms and the purpose and scope of the CDM. The results of this study raise questions about the effectiveness and the efficiency of the CDM, and about reforms proposed to ensure a better contribution of this mechanism to efforts to reduce GHGE. ; Institué par le protocole de Kyoto, le Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP) permet aux pays développés de remplir une partie de leurs engagements de réduction de leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre (EGES) dans le cadre de projets réalisés dans des pays en développement. De la sorte, les pays développés peuvent être crédités d'EGES correspondant au volume évité ou réduit dans ...

International audience ; On behalf of the struggle against climate change: the Clean Development Mechanism and its drifts Established by the Kyoto protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developed countries to meet part of their commitments to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions (GHGE) by investing in projects carried out in developing countries. So, developed countries can receive certified emissions reduction corresponding to the volume of GHGE avoided or reduced in developing countries, and developing countries can claim a clean development. The use of CDM has drawn a lot of criticism and even controversies: unproven GHGE reduction, weak transfer of clean technologies, uneven geographical and sectoral distribution of projects, lack of sustainable development that CDM projects are expected to generate in developing countries, etc. This paper identifies and assesses these criticisms, using two newsletters reporting on the implementation of CDM projects in the world (Nouvelles Francophones du marché du carbone et du MDP, and Moniteur du MDP et de la Mise en Œuvre Conjointe). Criticisms identified and assessed were confronted with expert opinions of two International Non Governmental Organisations (INGO) specialised on the monitoring of the CDM implementation: CDM Watch and NOE 21. Interviews with managers of these INGO have permitted to evaluate the relevance of criticisms and the purpose and scope of the CDM. The results of this study raise questions about the effectiveness and the efficiency of the CDM, and about reforms proposed to ensure a better contribution of this mechanism to efforts to reduce GHGE. ; Institué par le protocole de Kyoto, le Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP) permet aux pays développés de remplir une partie de leurs engagements de réduction de leurs émissions de gaz à effet de serre (EGES) dans le cadre de projets réalisés dans des pays en développement. De la sorte, les pays développés peuvent être crédités d'EGES correspondant au volume évité ou réduit dans ...

Shape memory alloys (SMA) undergo a solid-solid phase transformation called martensitic transformation, involving a "high temperature" phase, austenite, and a "low temperature" phase, martensite. The crystalline microstructure of the alloy alters mechanisms of transformations, and its pseudo-elastic behavior. The reduction of the grains to nanometric size shows new and unknown thermal and mechanical characteristics. Knowledge of thermomechanical behavior is however essential for the validation of multiaxial models to democratize the use of these materials. This work presents the development of innovative biaxial dynamic tests for the study of the pseudo-elastic mechanical behavior of a nickel titanium under biaxial dynamic compression. A single projectile, launched on a complex system of 45 ^ { circ} triangles, bars and transmitters, creates a biaxial solicitation of the sample. This mechanism ensures that the loads are synchronized along the two axes. Thanks to its architecture, the system makes possible many cases of multiaxial dynamic stress, unexplored until now. The forces and displacements across the sample are calculated independently, along both axes, from strain gauges glued on bars. The use of a thermal and optical camera allows strain and heating sources fields to be identified. The stress field is estimated by combining the information from the strain gauges placed on the bars and a finite element analysis of the specimen. The deformation appears homogeneous in the biaxial loading region of interest where a significant rise in temperature due to the phase change latent heat is observed. On the other hand the dynamic testing allows an equivalent dynamic stress/strain curve under biaxial and quasi-adiabatic conditions to be plotted. Experiments are finally compared to the results of finite difference axisymmetric model where the constitutive law is given by a fully coupled stochastic multiscale model. ; La microstructure cristalline de l'alliage joue un rôle vis-à-vis des mécanismes de transformations, ...

Most countries recognize that a coordinated worldwide action to limit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has to be implemented. However, the countries inability to coordinate their efforts led to the failure of the top-down climate architecture. Today, the international climate governance adopts a different direction, which based on bottom-up approach. This approach promotes polycentric and multi-level governances, that induce several independent policy-makers in different administrative scales (province, state and region). Therefore, the actual implemented Emission Trading Systems (ETS), as well as the emerging ones, grow in a domestic context. This context, in terms of economic development, political commitment and geographical coverage, determine the ETS design. Then, there is no harmonized design among ETS, no universal diffusion of these mechanisms in the world and a lack of integral inclusion of all sectors in these carbon markets. While researchers and policy-makers discuss the optimal features of such systems, this thesis examines different configuration options and coverage areas for the tradable permit schemes.Using a world energy-economy partial equilibrium simulation model (POLES) and drawing on experiences with real-world ETSs (based on empirical literature), we recommend two types of adjustments: the restrictions on trade permits between sectors, in one hand, and the control of international permit exchange between ETS, in the second hand. Indeed, we demonstrate firstly the necessity to separate ETS by sector and adapt them considering the specificities of each sector. This kind of policy will stimulate innovation in each sector. Also, it will limit the impacts on the international competitiveness and it will lead climate policy to other economic policies. Secondly, we develop a model to describe the effects of exchange permits emissions considering international linking among emissions trading systems. We prove that restriction exchange mechanisms are necessary to insure the redistribution of exchange ...