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Conservation refers to the careful and controlled use of natural resources for the purpose of extending the time they are available as well as retaining biodiversity. This book explores aspects of conservation, particularly the conservation of plant life upon which ecosystems are built

The oceans contain 97% of the Earth's water and cover 71% of its surface. Sea level depends on global climate, and the Earth's climate is changing. We have reached the point where the oceans can no longer absorb the waste we throw into it. We offer a global scientific approach for middle school students by covering critical factors including; what and where salt water is and how human activity and climate change is affecting the purity of the oceans and the quantity and health of its sea life. All concepts and vocabulary are presented in a way that makes it accessible to students and easier t

When most people hear the word Madagascar, images of animated dancing lemurs and quirky stranded penguins come to their minds. Although there is some truth in the movie's description of that far-away, mysterious place, it fails to paint a complete picture of Madagascar as being rich in biodiversity and culture. Few places on earth rival the variety of endemic plants and animals that are found there. It is estimated that Madagascar has more genetic diversity per unit area than anywhere else on earth (Karsten, et al., 2009). This makes it "one of the world's hottest hotspots for biodiversity conservation" (Consiglio, et al., 2006). Even though Madagascar is a biologically invaluable nation, it trails behind other ecologically notable countries, like Ecuador, in the conservation effort. Madagascar continues to suffer devastating loss to its precious habitats. The Madagascar government has the difficult task of preserving as much ecologically unique territory as it can, without depriving the already economically disadvantaged local people. Much international help is needed in providing support to the people and protection to the plants, animals, and natural resources of Madagascar.

It is now acknowledgement that private landholders should play a central role in defending Australia's natural resources. Facilitating mechanisms for private landholders to effectively conserve their land is necessary to allow for connectivity between "islands" of publicly owned and managed conservation areas and to achieve a comprehensive, adequate and representative (CAR) system of protected areas. Covenants on the title of the land, which can be held in perpetuity by a covenant body, are the most secure form of private land conservation and the only private initiatives that has the potential to be included in the National Reserve System (NRS). Across Australia, all states have legislated for covenanting schemes. These schemes vary in approach and all raise issues as to how covenants may best be used to ensure their viability and durability as long term conservation tools. Balancing Private and Public Conservation This report concludes that there is scope for partnerships between government, individual landholders and Private Conservation Organisations in conserving the land. However legislated protected areas remain should remain as the core of biodiversity protection. Thus private land conservation initiatives should be 'fillers' in the CAR system and covenants which have security of tenure should complement publicly managed conservation areas in the NRS. There is evidence that Commonwealth funding is focused on more generalised private conservation initiatives under the National Heritage Trust (NHT) and concerns are raised that the NRS Program, which supports acquisition of land of high conservation value, has become a low budget priority. This report recommends that the NRS be re-instated as a core funding priority of the NHT. Two days before submission of this report the National Reserve Program - 2006 Evaluation was released. That report concluded that within the Program, more money is being designated to non-government conservation initiatives at the expense of contributions to the public reserve system. This finding will need further reviewing to ensure that a partnership approach is maintained between private and public conservation bodies in the NRS program. The Covenant Process There are over 2600 covenanted properties across Australia. Employing locally engaged staff and targeting specific landholders help covenant bodies to increase covenant numbers. Some financial incentives such as tax rebates or payments for specific management projects are also useful tools for encouraging landholders to enter into covenants. Impediments to covenant bodies increasing covenant numbers include limited financial resources and staff, lack of time and negative landholder perceptions. Within short government programs such as the Private Forest Reserve Program in Tasmania, limited time to develop covenants was cited as a concern because it takes time to develop a relationship of trust with landholders who are considering covenanting their land. Negative landholder perceptions were also cited as an issue. Some landholders believe that covenants are a means for government agencies to take their land away whilst others see the covenanting process as too time consuming. This report proposes that locally engaged staff be employed, where possible, to facilitate the covenanting process and to encourage and improve perceptions of the covenanting process. On-going Management Encouraging landholders to enter into covenants is important; however, increasing covenant numbers will have no net benefits for conservation unless the covenanting body and the landholder effectively manage the protected land. Although covenants may be secure conservation tools in theory, it is how they are managed which will establish whether they are secure in practice. Management plans are used to provide technical advice to landholders. All plans are created in consultation with the landholder to provide flexibility and ensure greater compliance. It is noted that giving too much weight to the requests of landholders could lead to easily attainable but ineffective management goals. Thus it is recommended that the conservation values of properties be appropriately balanced with the interests of landholders. Regular contact between the covenanting body and landholders is central to the effectiveness of management plans and covenants. Some covenant bodies organise field days or regular gatherings of landholders. These meetings provide a means for landholders to raise issues and share information. It is also a mechanism for the covenant body to engage in on-going monitoring. However, this report raises concerns over the frequency of visits by covenant bodies to covenanted properties. Visits are commonly carried out every three years, however some covenant bodies do not engage in regular visits. Given that some covenant bodies may not find out for several years whether breaches have occurred, major questions are raised as to the long-term security of covenants. It is recommended that visits occur annually to land of high conservation value in conjunction with individual monitoring and periodic meetings with landholders. Furthermore systems should be put in place to alert the covenanting body when there is a change of ownership of the land. This report found only one case in which the conditions of a covenant were enforced through the courts. It is noted that covenant bodies prefer to deal with minor breaches out of court; however, most are at least willing to enforce major breaches of the conditions of covenants. Where a breach is taken to the courts, the Histollo Pty Ltd v Director-General of National Parks and Wildlife Service (1998) 45 NSWLR 661 suggests that only covenants and management plans which specify the precise nature and location of what is to be protected ensure that covenant conditions can be enforced. Conclusion This report concludes that conservation covenants have the potential to be secure conservation tools and are an important part of the NRS. However, there is room for improvement in the administration and on-going management of covenants. Given the varying contexts in which each of the State covenant bodies operate no one covenant program could serve as a model for covenanting bodies to follow. Instead greater communication, co­ ordination and co-operation between the States and the Commonwealth is needed to share information on the strengths and weaknesses of covenanting programs across Australia and to explore opportunities for implementing initiatives which build on those strengths and address weaknesses.