Acta et epistolae: Transilvania în relaţiile cu Moldova şi Ţara Românască (sec. XVII)
In: Medievalia 4
In: Seria: Istorie, documente, mărturii
In: Medievalia 4
In: Seria: Istorie, documente, mărturii
In: Keresztyen Politika, 4
World Affairs Online
In: Erdélyi jogélet, Band 1, Heft 2, S. 107-123
ISSN: 2734-7095
Fiume (current official name: Rijeka) became part of Hungary in 1779 as a "corpus separatum". At the time of the so-called provision, after 1870, the legal system of the port city developed in a special way. Although the Hungarian government took over the administration of the city again, this did not mean the automatic reception and application of the entire Hungarian legal system. Some Hungarian laws were not later enacted in Fiume. The article prepared on the basis of the conference lecture in Cluj-Napoca (Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania) intends to review the issues of legal interpretation of the applicability of Act XLIV of 1868 on National Equality by using descriptive method, taking into account legal history and legal theory aspects.
In the resent years in Serbia the process of regionalization, the power of decentralization and the strengthening to self-government has become a central issue. In this context, my aim is to give a general preview about initial processes of Serbia's regional development, regionalism and decentralization. Regions and regional development have tradition on the Balkan. Taking into consideration this fact research of regional development of the former Yugoslavian republics is important. We have to study the instruments which were used to decrease the regional differences after the First and the Second World War. In this paper my aim is to introduce regional problems of the former Yugoslavia and today in Serbia. The main questions are: with which problems struggled Yugoslavia after the First World War and after the Second World War. How the government tried to solve the problems of regional inequalities in the past and what actions makes today to equalize the regional differences in Serbia.
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A tojás egy "ételcsoda", biológiai értéke az anyatejével azonos, 40-féle fehérjét tartalmaz, köztük baktericid, erős antigén és vérnyomáscsökkentő hatásúakat is. 18-féle aminosav található benne, amiből 9 esszenciális. Egy fehérje (6-6,7 g/tojás) és vitamin (A, D, E, B₁, B₂, B₃, B₅/pantoténsav, B₆, B₉/folsav, B12-vitamin) "bomba", sőt ásványi anyagokban (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mg, I, Se, Ca, P, K) is rendkívül gazdag. Optimális arányban tartalmazza a telített- és telítetlen zsírsavakat, ugyanakkor nem tartalmaz C-vitamint, szénhidrátot és transzzsírokat. Egy tojásban 190-210 mg koleszterin van, miközben egy felnőtt szervezete napi kb. 3000 mg koleszterint termel ahhoz, hogy fedezze anyagcsere szükségleteit. Tojással fedezhető az emberi szervezet napi állatifehérje-szükséglete a legolcsóbban, ami egyébként a legkisebb környezeti terhelés mellett állítható elő. Ugyanakkor a tojás nemcsak alapvető élelmiszer, de annak funkcionális tulajdonságaiból adódóan fontos egészségmegőrző szerepet tölt be, így a népegészségügy javításának egyik lehetséges, kívánatos eszköze. A tojás segíti az agyműködést, a magzati fejlődést, az immunrendszert, csökkenti a kardiovaszkuláris és a daganatos megbetegedések (mell-, bőr-, vastagbél-, méhnyak rák), a korral összefüggő szembetegségek (makuladegeneráció, szürkehályog), a trombózis, az érszűkület kialakulásának és az idős kori izomerő- és izomtömeg-csökkenés (szarkopénia) előfordulásának kockázat. A legfrissebb táplálkozás-élettani kutatási eredmények cáfolják a korábbi, a tojás koleszterintartalmának egészségügyi kockázataival kapcsolatos negatív nézeteket. Az utóbbi időben számos ország (Ausztrália, Egyesült Királyság, Kanada, USA, WHO, Spanyol Szív Alapítvány stb.) egészségügyi és táplálkozástudományi intézménye az egészséges étrend részeként egyértelműen ajánlja a tojás rendszeres fogyasztását. A bemutatottak alapján ajánlott és felkarolandó politikai célkitűzésnek tartjuk, hogy "a magyar emberek több magyar tojást fogyasszanak"! A magyar tojás helyben termelődik, biztonságosabb, jobb, és hazai munkahelyeket tart meg. A célok elérése végett javasoljuk egy népegészségügyi program kidolgozását és megvalósítását. E mellett nagyobb szerepet kell, hogy kapjon a tojás a közétkeztetésben is (kórházak, tanintézmények, szociális intézmények, honvédség, büntetés-végrehajtás stb.). Mindehhez hathatós kormányzati támogatásra lenne szükség a lakosság széleskörű és tudatos tájékoztatása céljából a tojással kapcsolatosan (táplálkozási értéke, egészségvédő funkciója, jelölés értelmezése, hazai védjegy megismertetése, árképzés stb.). A fogyasztás népszerűsítése érdekében széleskörű marketingkommunikációs eszközök (televízió, rádió, internet, nyomtatott sajtó, plakátok, reklámtáblák, molinók, tömegközlekedési járművek) bevetését, eseménymarketinget (Tojás Világnap, Tojásfesztivál, Tojássokadalom), továbbá tájékoztató és népszerűsítő kiadványok (receptfüzetek, könyvek stb.) megjelentetését, valamint ezekhez kapcsolódó projektek támogatását szorgalmazzuk. Mindezen túl haladéktalanul lépéseket kellene tenni az orvos és a dietetikus képzésben a tojással kapcsolatos ismeretanyag korszerűsítése érdekében.
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To solve ecological problems the contribution of international organizations, national governments, civil organizations, companies,academic researchers, and individuals is required. The unsustainable buyer, consumer and user patterns have to be changed.Fortunately, nowadays there are more and more efforts on the part of consumers, according to the results of consumer researches ecologicalconsciousness of consumers is ascendant over the world. The ecologically conscious consumer segment persistently rises, andthis segment can be featured accurately not by demographic, but by psychographic variables. Individuals have several opportunitiesto lower own environment use, one form of it is proenvironmental purchasing behaviour (Buy eco-labelled products, organic food orenergy-efficient household appliances, refuse animal tested cosmetics, disposable products and plastic bags, etc.). According to ourresearch, the Hungarian population have positive general environmental attitudes and can be divided into five clusters: Neglectfultownspeople, Environment sensitive people, Distance-keeping inquirers, Doubters, and Responsibility-taking countrymen. Hungarianpeople are not environmentally conscious in their purchases. In demographics gender, age and education have a weak or possibly amedium, property status and residence has a strong, significant influence. Positive attitudes increase while negative attitudes decreasethe possibilities of such activities. ; To solve ecological problems the contribution of international organizations, national governments, civil organizations, companies,academic researchers, and individuals is required. The unsustainable buyer, consumer and user patterns have to be changed.Fortunately, nowadays there are more and more efforts on the part of consumers, according to the results of consumer researches ecologicalconsciousness of consumers is ascendant over the world. The ecologically conscious consumer segment persistently rises, andthis segment can be featured accurately not by demographic, but by psychographic variables. Individuals have several opportunitiesto lower own environment use, one form of it is proenvironmental purchasing behaviour (Buy eco-labelled products, organic food orenergy-efficient household appliances, refuse animal tested cosmetics, disposable products and plastic bags, etc.). According to ourresearch, the Hungarian population have positive general environmental attitudes and can be divided into five clusters: Neglectfultownspeople, Environment sensitive people, Distance-keeping inquirers, Doubters, and Responsibility-taking countrymen. Hungarianpeople are not environmentally conscious in their purchases. In demographics gender, age and education have a weak or possibly amedium, property status and residence has a strong, significant influence. Positive attitudes increase while negative attitudes decreasethe possibilities of such activities.
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The aim of the study is to present the European Parliamentary elections taking place on 22 May 2014. The first part of the study focuses on the results, the Europeans and the Hungarian as well. The turnout was almost the same as last elections in 2009, but the balance of power has been shifted slightly. The political groups have remained almost the same like before. The European People's Party lost several mandates, the Socialists and the Greens managed to maintain almost the same size of group with a small loss, while the liberals lost the biggest. The European Conservatives became the third biggest political group in the newly elected European Parliament. The left wing parties are also the winners of this election: the GUE/NGL succeeded to gain several new seats. The study also shows how the newly elected European Parliament (EP) held its inauguration session. The first step was the formation of the different political groups. Then, during its inauguration session held in Strasbourg, the new members of the parliament elected the President, the 14 Vice-Presidents, and the quaestors. In addition, the essay gives a short outlook to the ongoing institutional changes, mainly concentrating on the new European Commission.
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In 1988-1989 a stream of East Germans sought refugee in Hungary at the Embassy of West Germany in Budapest. The three countries taking part in the issue made different solutions to deal with the increasing problem. The East German leadership tried to call back the refugees and calm down the emigration process, but it had lost its confidence. West Germany tried to solve the problem not only on the level of consulship but exten-sively, in part with recognizing the status those waiting for West German citizenship and those for refugee status - without any success. In the interest of the resolution and bring the Hungarian leadership to their point of view, they tried to make use of the international organizations. However, the Hungarian leadership made efforts to stay out of the issue to get the two German states make an agreement. But there was no chance for that so Buda-pest gave up its quasi neutrality and tried to solve the problem opening the border by avoiding Hungary to turn into a refugee camp of the region. Besides making this ad hoc arrangement, the whole issue needed more radical crisis management, not only in Hungary.
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In: Erdélyi jogélet, Band 2, Heft 1, S. 195-217
ISSN: 2734-7095
The corporate governance as a regulatory system has started a journey towards independence for a while, and sooner or later it will turn into a self-standing field of science. This process is facilitated not only by its transdisciplinary nature, which combines legal science with economic science, within the civil law, the corporate law, business economics, management and organizational science, but also, in the case of state-owned companies, with public administration and proceedings law. The timeliness of the topic is illustrated by the prolonged transition to market economy following the 1989 regime change, the controversial application of company law, the scandals around certain privatization processes, the bankruptcy of many important state-owned enterprises, all of these bringing about a willingness to establish a regulatory framework. Taking into consideration the above short presentation, the subject of our analysis is very complex; this article intends to limit the examination to the Bucharest Stock Exchange Corporate Governance Code, investigating it in comparison to the provisions of the Romanian legal system. At the same time, it sets as an objective to make use of a concrete example (the most important Romanian state-owned joint stock company listed at the Bucharest Stock Exchange), Romgaz, in order to present the reader the ways and circumstances of the implementation of the general principles and provisions to comply with , as included in the Code.
On 28th April 2019 parliamentary elections were held in Spain, which won the left-wing Spanish Socialist Workers' Party. As a result of the elections the party system, which was characterised by the dominance of two main political forces (the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party and the People's Party) continued to transform significantly. The People's Party suffered one of the worst election results during the three decades of its history, which could be explained by the strengthening of Ciudadanos and the emergence of the radical political force, Vox.It must be noted that neither the left-wing, nor the right-wing political parties succeeded gaining absolute majority (176 mandates) in the Congress of Deputies. Taking into account of the division of political sphere and the ideological differences among the parties, it will probably take a long time until the main political forces can strike a compromise to form a coalition government in the Iberian country. This requires mutual concessions by the Spanish political elite.Besides the evaluation of the antecedents of parliamentary elections the objective my paper is to analyse the peculiarities of election campaign, but I will also highlight which factors played crucial role in the transformation of the party system in Spain. In my essay emphasis will be given to the different scenarios as regards negotiations for constructing a stable government. Because of length constraints, I will not deal with the foreign affairs- and economic policy of the socialist government.
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Mátyás Rákosi, first secretary of the Hungarian Workers' Party, was forced to resign by soviet Politburo member Anastas Mikoyan on 18th July, 1956. He was followed by Ernő Gerő, who was also a hated man, responsible for all economic decisions in earlier years and taking part in a leadership which had committed serious crimes. He remained in power for three months only, until the October 1956 Revolution. Although Gerő announced political reforms, historians regard it only as a tactical step. This study suggests that these reforms, named "clear sheet", or "tabula rasa" policy, were in fact serious steps toward a "socialist democracy". What is more, these steps were not only announced but many of them was also taken. However, three months were not enough for Gerő to introduce all changes, because he was also engaged in neutralizing the activity of the party opposition lead by Imre Nagy's group. The study analyzes these reforms (e.g. increasing the role of the National Assembly, restoring the "socialist legality", decentralization, improving the living standards of the society, broadening the freedom of speech, giving greater support to the intellectuals etc.). To sum up, it can be stated that these reforms have a lot in common with the reforms of Imre Nagy in 1953. Surprisingly, it seems that the so-called "soft dictatorship" would have started much earlier, already in 1956, instead of 1963. The later reforms of János Kádár, introduced gradually in the 1960s (and sometimes only in the 1980s) probably originated also from this period of time, the Summer of'56. This study has much more questions than answers, its aim is to generate a new debate on Gerő's first secretariat hoping that a better understanding of this period can be reached. The most important questions are the following: why did the Revolution exacdy break out; how would it be possible to avoid it and, most interestingly, what would have happened if the Revolution did not break out at all?
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The education has been exceedingly affected by the economic recession, the transformed state governance and the demographic waves, so the educational system of each country underwent some changes. The aim of my research is the comparative study of the educational systems in the East-Central European region. I examined the relationships between the different qualities, historical backgrounds, reforms and I explored the relationship between the current states of the systems (Karsten & Majoor, 1994; Lannert, 1998; Knell & Srholec, 2007; Horn & Sinka, 2007; Báthory, 2008; Dienes, 2007; Kelemen, 2010; Dakowska & Harmsenbert, 2015). My research questions are the following: What were the main reforms in the transformation of education systems? What similarities can be observed in the school systems of the countries? The region I studied is a specific East-Central European region, so the countries I have chosen are Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Austria, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland. In my study, I have created three groups and I present the changes in the education systems of these countries, taking into consideration economic, social and political issues (Lannert, 2004; Kozma, 2006; Barber & Moirshed, 2007; Valuch, 2009; Kelemen, 2010; Jakubowski, 2015). Analyzing the results, it can be concluded that the regime change has enabled the countries to redefine themselves and find their new status in domestic and international politics, and also in world economy. The world economy situation created same problems for the states of the region, but their resources were different, so the public spending on education, the characteristics of education management and the infrastructure characteristics of the institutions were different. Among the main results, I have identified two groups during compulsory schooling, the first group being countries that introduce compulsory schooling up to the age of 6-15 years, and the other group consists of countries introducing compulsory schooling up to the age of 16. I have examined the curriculum regulation and the textbook market, it can be stated that, as a result of the reforms, new curricula were prepared, the textbooks were adapted according to these. Examining curriculum regulation is the result of countries striving for central regulation, but it has to be emphasized that there are countries that have integrated framework curricula and / or local curricula into a single national core curriculum, thus giving the opportunity to more autonomous management. In summary it can be concluded that the history of the countries studied and the development of their educational systems evolved similarly, however, differences can be observed by examining the different educational characteristics. My theoretical research can contribute to the discovery of the situation in Hungary and to the development tendencies and trends in the region.
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