Suchergebnisse

The paper analyzes the descriptive representation of women in post-communist countries, that is, the factors determining the representation of women in parliaments in postsocialist states. The main problem is that women are underrepresented in the analyzed sample of countries. With the average of 17 percent, the number of women falls behind the world's average and lags severely behind Western countries. The paper sets its primary goal: to test a set of theories developed from studies of women's access to political power in Western democracies. I wished to see how those theories fared in a significantly different context, the newly developing democracies of post-communist space. Three hypotheses were raised: 1. The main factor, determining the representation of women in parliaments of post-communist states is the design of electoral system; 2. The prevailing patriarchal attitude towards the role of women in the society is important, but not the essential factor; 3. Socioeconomic conditions do not explain the variance of the proportion of women found in legislative institutions of post-communist countries. Three last elections of 17 electoral democracies of post-communist countries have been included in the analysis. The model of legislative recruitment process has been used as the main theoretical framework. This process is highly influenced by cultural, political and socioeconomic contexts within which it occurs. The dependent variable in the research is the number of women legislators in parliaments. 3 independent variables – political, socioeconomic and cultural factors – have been divided into subfactors. Statistical analysis has been undertaken: correlation coefficients have been calculated and multivariate regression analysis has been made. Results demonstrate that the first hypothesis cannot be confirmed, but its statement is close to the truth. It appears that the main factor, determining the representation of women in post-communist countries, is fertility rate per woman. The higher the rate of fertility, the less women will be found in the legislatures. Electoral system is a very important variable. The proportional representation electoral system, characterized by high district magnitude and high electoral thresholds, is highly favourable to representation of women in parliaments. The second hypothesis, stating that patriarchal attitude towards women is important, but not the essential factor, has been confirmed. Countries where patriarchal attitude is prevalent, fare worse in representation of women. However, considering the remarkable differences between the attitudes of Western and post-communist countries, it could have been reasonable to expect that this factor would be the main determining the number of female legislators. However, this is not the case. Such attitude is common to all post-communist countries, so it probably operates as a main factor determining the relatively low number in post-communist states as a whole, and not as important in explaining the variation across the region. The third hypothesis, stating that socioeconomic factors do not affect the representation of women, has not been confirmed. Fertility rate, unemployment, and participation in labor force are all important factors explaining the variance of female MPs. The only factor that proved to be unimportant was level of development. So it can be stated, that the theories, developed in Western countries, with little nuances, are able to explain the variance of women MPs in post-communist states. The only difference is that fertility rate plays a particularly important role in post-communist context, and the relation between the participation of women in the labor force and the number of women in parliaments is negative. This can be due to the fact that participation in labor force refers to completely different things in Western and Eastern societies.

The paper analyzes the descriptive representation of women in post-communist countries, that is, the factors determining the representation of women in parliaments in postsocialist states. The main problem is that women are underrepresented in the analyzed sample of countries. With the average of 17 percent, the number of women falls behind the world's average and lags severely behind Western countries. The paper sets its primary goal: to test a set of theories developed from studies of women's access to political power in Western democracies. I wished to see how those theories fared in a significantly different context, the newly developing democracies of post-communist space. Three hypotheses were raised: 1. The main factor, determining the representation of women in parliaments of post-communist states is the design of electoral system; 2. The prevailing patriarchal attitude towards the role of women in the society is important, but not the essential factor; 3. Socioeconomic conditions do not explain the variance of the proportion of women found in legislative institutions of post-communist countries. Three last elections of 17 electoral democracies of post-communist countries have been included in the analysis. The model of legislative recruitment process has been used as the main theoretical framework. This process is highly influenced by cultural, political and socioeconomic contexts within which it occurs. The dependent variable in the research is the number of women legislators in parliaments. 3 independent variables – political, socioeconomic and cultural factors – have been divided into subfactors. Statistical analysis has been undertaken: correlation coefficients have been calculated and multivariate regression analysis has been made. Results demonstrate that the first hypothesis cannot be confirmed, but its statement is close to the truth. It appears that the main factor, determining the representation of women in post-communist countries, is fertility rate per woman. The higher the rate of fertility, the less women will be found in the legislatures. Electoral system is a very important variable. The proportional representation electoral system, characterized by high district magnitude and high electoral thresholds, is highly favourable to representation of women in parliaments. The second hypothesis, stating that patriarchal attitude towards women is important, but not the essential factor, has been confirmed. Countries where patriarchal attitude is prevalent, fare worse in representation of women. However, considering the remarkable differences between the attitudes of Western and post-communist countries, it could have been reasonable to expect that this factor would be the main determining the number of female legislators. However, this is not the case. Such attitude is common to all post-communist countries, so it probably operates as a main factor determining the relatively low number in post-communist states as a whole, and not as important in explaining the variation across the region. The third hypothesis, stating that socioeconomic factors do not affect the representation of women, has not been confirmed. Fertility rate, unemployment, and participation in labor force are all important factors explaining the variance of female MPs. The only factor that proved to be unimportant was level of development. So it can be stated, that the theories, developed in Western countries, with little nuances, are able to explain the variance of women MPs in post-communist states. The only difference is that fertility rate plays a particularly important role in post-communist context, and the relation between the participation of women in the labor force and the number of women in parliaments is negative. This can be due to the fact that participation in labor force refers to completely different things in Western and Eastern societies.

Residents are one of conditions for state existance, therefore analysis of demographic characteristics is iportant not only in theoretical, but also practical aspect. Population density is one of the most important demographic characteristics which contains and also reflects economic, social, political and sometimes cultural meaning of region. Mapping of population density has dual objectives: on the one hand, representing quantity and distribution of residents in the analyzed area, on the other hand – after qualitative evaluation of the data the received results can be used for furhter research and for creating population distribution models. Often for certain reasons like data collection and recalculation methods or chosen cartographic methods cartographic production of the covered mapped area becomes measure which creates not entirely truthful impression about the portrayed phenomenon. Objective of this paper is to evaluate communication pecularities and efficiency of Lithuanian population density maps which were created using different cartographic methods. In order to reach the objective, literary sources, statistical data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census and results of carried out cartographic experimental research were used. Various research methods were applied: analysis of literary sources and statistical data, cartographic method, descriptive, comparative and logical methods, GIS analysis, cartographic experimental research and geostatistic methods. First part of the paper analyzes the most common methods used for population mapping, important works of foreign authors about cartographic methods of population density and Lithuanian researches of population density mapping and population density cartographic methodics. Second part of the paper presents methodics of preparing this paper: population density mapping is discussed, trial experimental research is prepared and analysis of two aspects (data presented by maps and map communication) is described. Third part of the paper consists of four subsections. Population density maps created using choropleth mapping, dasimetric and kernel density methods are presented, advantages and disadvantages of such maps are discussed in the first subsection. Deflections of village population density maps created using choropleth mapping and kernel density methods are examined by comparing the said maps with data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census presented in 1 x 1 km grids are analyzed in the second subsection. Results of trial cartographic experimental research are presented in the third subsection. Recommendations for population density mapping and cartographic experimental research are presented in the fourth subsection. The research showed that not enough attention is paid to creating correct cartographic population density models in Lithuania, while foreign countries keep improving dasimetric cartographic method which is not used in Lithuania. Also territorial patterns and scatter of deflections in populatin density maps created using different methods was observed. It was determined that the least deflections of village population density is inherent in maps which were creadet using kernel density method with impact distance parameter of 1 kilometer. In order to create more precise population density maps, generalization in level of administrative units should be refused and other cartographic methods should be used. The results of the research are important for perfecting population density cartographic methodics in Lithuania. Author of the paper observed that problem of the population density cartographic method is much more complicated than it is commonly thought, therefore main directions were distinguished and recommendations for further research of understanding of information provided in population density maps and comparison of methods by carrying out experiments with users.

Residents are one of conditions for state existance, therefore analysis of demographic characteristics is iportant not only in theoretical, but also practical aspect. Population density is one of the most important demographic characteristics which contains and also reflects economic, social, political and sometimes cultural meaning of region. Mapping of population density has dual objectives: on the one hand, representing quantity and distribution of residents in the analyzed area, on the other hand – after qualitative evaluation of the data the received results can be used for furhter research and for creating population distribution models. Often for certain reasons like data collection and recalculation methods or chosen cartographic methods cartographic production of the covered mapped area becomes measure which creates not entirely truthful impression about the portrayed phenomenon. Objective of this paper is to evaluate communication pecularities and efficiency of Lithuanian population density maps which were created using different cartographic methods. In order to reach the objective, literary sources, statistical data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census and results of carried out cartographic experimental research were used. Various research methods were applied: analysis of literary sources and statistical data, cartographic method, descriptive, comparative and logical methods, GIS analysis, cartographic experimental research and geostatistic methods. First part of the paper analyzes the most common methods used for population mapping, important works of foreign authors about cartographic methods of population density and Lithuanian researches of population density mapping and population density cartographic methodics. Second part of the paper presents methodics of preparing this paper: population density mapping is discussed, trial experimental research is prepared and analysis of two aspects (data presented by maps and map communication) is described. Third part of the paper consists of four subsections. Population density maps created using choropleth mapping, dasimetric and kernel density methods are presented, advantages and disadvantages of such maps are discussed in the first subsection. Deflections of village population density maps created using choropleth mapping and kernel density methods are examined by comparing the said maps with data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census presented in 1 x 1 km grids are analyzed in the second subsection. Results of trial cartographic experimental research are presented in the third subsection. Recommendations for population density mapping and cartographic experimental research are presented in the fourth subsection. The research showed that not enough attention is paid to creating correct cartographic population density models in Lithuania, while foreign countries keep improving dasimetric cartographic method which is not used in Lithuania. Also territorial patterns and scatter of deflections in populatin density maps created using different methods was observed. It was determined that the least deflections of village population density is inherent in maps which were creadet using kernel density method with impact distance parameter of 1 kilometer. In order to create more precise population density maps, generalization in level of administrative units should be refused and other cartographic methods should be used. The results of the research are important for perfecting population density cartographic methodics in Lithuania. Author of the paper observed that problem of the population density cartographic method is much more complicated than it is commonly thought, therefore main directions were distinguished and recommendations for further research of understanding of information provided in population density maps and comparison of methods by carrying out experiments with users.

Residents are one of conditions for state existance, therefore analysis of demographic characteristics is iportant not only in theoretical, but also practical aspect. Population density is one of the most important demographic characteristics which contains and also reflects economic, social, political and sometimes cultural meaning of region. Mapping of population density has dual objectives: on the one hand, representing quantity and distribution of residents in the analyzed area, on the other hand – after qualitative evaluation of the data the received results can be used for furhter research and for creating population distribution models. Often for certain reasons like data collection and recalculation methods or chosen cartographic methods cartographic production of the covered mapped area becomes measure which creates not entirely truthful impression about the portrayed phenomenon. Objective of this paper is to evaluate communication pecularities and efficiency of Lithuanian population density maps which were created using different cartographic methods. In order to reach the objective, literary sources, statistical data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census and results of carried out cartographic experimental research were used. Various research methods were applied: analysis of literary sources and statistical data, cartographic method, descriptive, comparative and logical methods, GIS analysis, cartographic experimental research and geostatistic methods. First part of the paper analyzes the most common methods used for population mapping, important works of foreign authors about cartographic methods of population density and Lithuanian researches of population density mapping and population density cartographic methodics. Second part of the paper presents methodics of preparing this paper: population density mapping is discussed, trial experimental research is prepared and analysis of two aspects (data presented by maps and map communication) is described. Third part of the paper consists of four subsections. Population density maps created using choropleth mapping, dasimetric and kernel density methods are presented, advantages and disadvantages of such maps are discussed in the first subsection. Deflections of village population density maps created using choropleth mapping and kernel density methods are examined by comparing the said maps with data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census presented in 1 x 1 km grids are analyzed in the second subsection. Results of trial cartographic experimental research are presented in the third subsection. Recommendations for population density mapping and cartographic experimental research are presented in the fourth subsection. The research showed that not enough attention is paid to creating correct cartographic population density models in Lithuania, while foreign countries keep improving dasimetric cartographic method which is not used in Lithuania. Also territorial patterns and scatter of deflections in populatin density maps created using different methods was observed. It was determined that the least deflections of village population density is inherent in maps which were creadet using kernel density method with impact distance parameter of 1 kilometer. In order to create more precise population density maps, generalization in level of administrative units should be refused and other cartographic methods should be used. The results of the research are important for perfecting population density cartographic methodics in Lithuania. Author of the paper observed that problem of the population density cartographic method is much more complicated than it is commonly thought, therefore main directions were distinguished and recommendations for further research of understanding of information provided in population density maps and comparison of methods by carrying out experiments with users.

Residents are one of conditions for state existance, therefore analysis of demographic characteristics is iportant not only in theoretical, but also practical aspect. Population density is one of the most important demographic characteristics which contains and also reflects economic, social, political and sometimes cultural meaning of region. Mapping of population density has dual objectives: on the one hand, representing quantity and distribution of residents in the analyzed area, on the other hand – after qualitative evaluation of the data the received results can be used for furhter research and for creating population distribution models. Often for certain reasons like data collection and recalculation methods or chosen cartographic methods cartographic production of the covered mapped area becomes measure which creates not entirely truthful impression about the portrayed phenomenon. Objective of this paper is to evaluate communication pecularities and efficiency of Lithuanian population density maps which were created using different cartographic methods. In order to reach the objective, literary sources, statistical data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census and results of carried out cartographic experimental research were used. Various research methods were applied: analysis of literary sources and statistical data, cartographic method, descriptive, comparative and logical methods, GIS analysis, cartographic experimental research and geostatistic methods. First part of the paper analyzes the most common methods used for population mapping, important works of foreign authors about cartographic methods of population density and Lithuanian researches of population density mapping and population density cartographic methodics. Second part of the paper presents methodics of preparing this paper: population density mapping is discussed, trial experimental research is prepared and analysis of two aspects (data presented by maps and map communication) is described. Third part of the paper consists of four subsections. Population density maps created using choropleth mapping, dasimetric and kernel density methods are presented, advantages and disadvantages of such maps are discussed in the first subsection. Deflections of village population density maps created using choropleth mapping and kernel density methods are examined by comparing the said maps with data from 2011 general residents and accomodation census presented in 1 x 1 km grids are analyzed in the second subsection. Results of trial cartographic experimental research are presented in the third subsection. Recommendations for population density mapping and cartographic experimental research are presented in the fourth subsection. The research showed that not enough attention is paid to creating correct cartographic population density models in Lithuania, while foreign countries keep improving dasimetric cartographic method which is not used in Lithuania. Also territorial patterns and scatter of deflections in populatin density maps created using different methods was observed. It was determined that the least deflections of village population density is inherent in maps which were creadet using kernel density method with impact distance parameter of 1 kilometer. In order to create more precise population density maps, generalization in level of administrative units should be refused and other cartographic methods should be used. The results of the research are important for perfecting population density cartographic methodics in Lithuania. Author of the paper observed that problem of the population density cartographic method is much more complicated than it is commonly thought, therefore main directions were distinguished and recommendations for further research of understanding of information provided in population density maps and comparison of methods by carrying out experiments with users.

The thesis analyzes interaction between EU interest groups and EU institutions. It explains how, why and where interest groups operate, what they represent, and whether the interests of Lithuanian organizations are represented in the European Union. The aim of the thesis is to evaluate interaction of interest groups with EP and EC. In order to reach this objective six tasks have been set. First of all, the activity of EU operating interest groups is considered. Also, the thesis studies the relation of interest groups with the European Commission and the European Parliament, the regulation of the activity of EU interest groups, the registers of EC and EP interest groups, and the representation of Lithuanian organizations in EU. In the thesis the following methods are used: descriptive method, analytical method, the method of statistical analysis, and the method of quality research semi-structured interview. After the creation of the common market, interest groups have become more active, which has been caused by such factors as europeization and euro-integration. Interest groups influence the decisions of EC, EP and ET. EU has a favorable opinion about interest groups, because they help to solve the problem of "the lack of democracy". Interest groups are most active in the stage of the law establishment, when they seek to influence the formation of laws. The sphere where interest groups are most active is EC. By its functions EC plays a key role in the formation of EU policy. EC associates a great deal with interest groups, thus depends on the information supplied by them. EP does not have such functions as EC, consequently is not so important for interest groups. EP becomes an essential agent in the sphere where the procedure of common decision-making is applied. EP's greater powers attract more attention from interest groups. In EU there is no specific act regulating the lobby activity of interest groups. EC seeks to initiate open dialogue with interest groups, applies minimal control and encourages self-regulation. EP applies stricter rules, one of which is the obligation for interest groups to be listed on the register. According to the statistics of the EU registers of interest groups, EU old state-members' organizations have more representation, while EU new state-members' representation is very insufficient. Business and public interest are better represented in EU. The number of interest groups in EU has been growing very rapidly. Due to scarce experience, contacts, intellect and financial resources, Lithuanian organizations are not ready to effectively protect their interests. For this reason, they usually assign their representation to European organizations, involving themselves quite actively in their activity.

The thesis analyzes interaction between EU interest groups and EU institutions. It explains how, why and where interest groups operate, what they represent, and whether the interests of Lithuanian organizations are represented in the European Union. The aim of the thesis is to evaluate interaction of interest groups with EP and EC. In order to reach this objective six tasks have been set. First of all, the activity of EU operating interest groups is considered. Also, the thesis studies the relation of interest groups with the European Commission and the European Parliament, the regulation of the activity of EU interest groups, the registers of EC and EP interest groups, and the representation of Lithuanian organizations in EU. In the thesis the following methods are used: descriptive method, analytical method, the method of statistical analysis, and the method of quality research semi-structured interview. After the creation of the common market, interest groups have become more active, which has been caused by such factors as europeization and euro-integration. Interest groups influence the decisions of EC, EP and ET. EU has a favorable opinion about interest groups, because they help to solve the problem of "the lack of democracy". Interest groups are most active in the stage of the law establishment, when they seek to influence the formation of laws. The sphere where interest groups are most active is EC. By its functions EC plays a key role in the formation of EU policy. EC associates a great deal with interest groups, thus depends on the information supplied by them. EP does not have such functions as EC, consequently is not so important for interest groups. EP becomes an essential agent in the sphere where the procedure of common decision-making is applied. EP's greater powers attract more attention from interest groups. In EU there is no specific act regulating the lobby activity of interest groups. EC seeks to initiate open dialogue with interest groups, applies minimal control and encourages self-regulation. EP applies stricter rules, one of which is the obligation for interest groups to be listed on the register. According to the statistics of the EU registers of interest groups, EU old state-members' organizations have more representation, while EU new state-members' representation is very insufficient. Business and public interest are better represented in EU. The number of interest groups in EU has been growing very rapidly. Due to scarce experience, contacts, intellect and financial resources, Lithuanian organizations are not ready to effectively protect their interests. For this reason, they usually assign their representation to European organizations, involving themselves quite actively in their activity.

The thesis analyzes interaction between EU interest groups and EU institutions. It explains how, why and where interest groups operate, what they represent, and whether the interests of Lithuanian organizations are represented in the European Union. The aim of the thesis is to evaluate interaction of interest groups with EP and EC. In order to reach this objective six tasks have been set. First of all, the activity of EU operating interest groups is considered. Also, the thesis studies the relation of interest groups with the European Commission and the European Parliament, the regulation of the activity of EU interest groups, the registers of EC and EP interest groups, and the representation of Lithuanian organizations in EU. In the thesis the following methods are used: descriptive method, analytical method, the method of statistical analysis, and the method of quality research semi-structured interview. After the creation of the common market, interest groups have become more active, which has been caused by such factors as europeization and euro-integration. Interest groups influence the decisions of EC, EP and ET. EU has a favorable opinion about interest groups, because they help to solve the problem of "the lack of democracy". Interest groups are most active in the stage of the law establishment, when they seek to influence the formation of laws. The sphere where interest groups are most active is EC. By its functions EC plays a key role in the formation of EU policy. EC associates a great deal with interest groups, thus depends on the information supplied by them. EP does not have such functions as EC, consequently is not so important for interest groups. EP becomes an essential agent in the sphere where the procedure of common decision-making is applied. EP's greater powers attract more attention from interest groups. In EU there is no specific act regulating the lobby activity of interest groups. EC seeks to initiate open dialogue with interest groups, applies minimal control and encourages self-regulation. EP applies stricter rules, one of which is the obligation for interest groups to be listed on the register. According to the statistics of the EU registers of interest groups, EU old state-members' organizations have more representation, while EU new state-members' representation is very insufficient. Business and public interest are better represented in EU. The number of interest groups in EU has been growing very rapidly. Due to scarce experience, contacts, intellect and financial resources, Lithuanian organizations are not ready to effectively protect their interests. For this reason, they usually assign their representation to European organizations, involving themselves quite actively in their activity.

This MA thesis researches how Lithuanian politicians are being represented in the press and what political stereotypes (favorable or unfavorable to the politicians) are being created. Two main Lithuanian daily newspapers – "Lietuvos rytas" and "Kauno diena" – were analysed. The research tends to prove the three main hypothesis: 1) What political information will reach the readers and the way it is covered depends on media, not on politicians; 2) The political news, published in Lithuanian press, lacks objectivity and impartiality; 3) The majority of daily political information is unfavorable to the politicians. That is the way the negative stereotypes of politicians are being created. The reserach consists on several stages. Firstly, what information – favorable or unfavorable to the politicians – is published more often. Also, it was analysed wether political notes were interpretative or descriptive. This stage contains quantative and qualitative content analysis of extended notes, where state's politicians (the members of Parliament and Government) are mentioned. The period of the research was a month (04 13 – 05 13). It was stated, the majority of the notes were written in descirptive style, nevertheless, even quite impartial notes were mostly unfavorable to the politicians. Having the aim to discover what political stereotypes are being created in the press, the discourse analysis of newspapers were made. Three main political stereotypes – "politician - swindler", "politician – truth seeker" and "politician – hooligan" were discovered. Despite the fact, 6 one of the most popular stereotypes – "politician – truth seeker" – was favorable to the politicians, the majority of repetetive stereotypes were unfavorable. The stereotypes mostly is being created by the facts of politicians' behaviour, but the journalists, giving negative actions, tend to stress it by using evaluative word or definitions. Having stated, the stereotypes are being created because of politicians' actions, it was important to find out what – politicians or media – determine what political facts will be presented to the society. The method of half – structured qualitative interview was chosen. The most often mentioned politician, two journalists, who wrote mostly, and two experts – political scientist and the chairman of Journalists' union – were interviewed. Interview revealed, political information is mostly determined by politicians' actions, but which actions will be presented to the society, depends on the journalists. The content of information could be determined by interest groups, journalists' personal attitudes and society's expectations. It was noticed, media prefers negative political aspects, because of the reason it is easy to sell. Moreover, it was discovered, the journalist, having no negative attitude to the politicians, writes neutral or favorable notes more often than the one, who thinks politicians do nothing good to the state. That is why, the conclusion – personal journalists' opinion determines the negativity of information – was made. Still, the fact the newspaper "Kauno diena" published more neutral or favorable information than "Lietuvos rytas", allows to state that objectivity and impartiality of press is possible.

This MA thesis researches how Lithuanian politicians are being represented in the press and what political stereotypes (favorable or unfavorable to the politicians) are being created. Two main Lithuanian daily newspapers – "Lietuvos rytas" and "Kauno diena" – were analysed. The research tends to prove the three main hypothesis: 1) What political information will reach the readers and the way it is covered depends on media, not on politicians; 2) The political news, published in Lithuanian press, lacks objectivity and impartiality; 3) The majority of daily political information is unfavorable to the politicians. That is the way the negative stereotypes of politicians are being created. The reserach consists on several stages. Firstly, what information – favorable or unfavorable to the politicians – is published more often. Also, it was analysed wether political notes were interpretative or descriptive. This stage contains quantative and qualitative content analysis of extended notes, where state's politicians (the members of Parliament and Government) are mentioned. The period of the research was a month (04 13 – 05 13). It was stated, the majority of the notes were written in descirptive style, nevertheless, even quite impartial notes were mostly unfavorable to the politicians. Having the aim to discover what political stereotypes are being created in the press, the discourse analysis of newspapers were made. Three main political stereotypes – "politician - swindler", "politician – truth seeker" and "politician – hooligan" were discovered. Despite the fact, 6 one of the most popular stereotypes – "politician – truth seeker" – was favorable to the politicians, the majority of repetetive stereotypes were unfavorable. The stereotypes mostly is being created by the facts of politicians' behaviour, but the journalists, giving negative actions, tend to stress it by using evaluative word or definitions. Having stated, the stereotypes are being created because of politicians' actions, it was important to find out what – politicians or media – determine what political facts will be presented to the society. The method of half – structured qualitative interview was chosen. The most often mentioned politician, two journalists, who wrote mostly, and two experts – political scientist and the chairman of Journalists' union – were interviewed. Interview revealed, political information is mostly determined by politicians' actions, but which actions will be presented to the society, depends on the journalists. The content of information could be determined by interest groups, journalists' personal attitudes and society's expectations. It was noticed, media prefers negative political aspects, because of the reason it is easy to sell. Moreover, it was discovered, the journalist, having no negative attitude to the politicians, writes neutral or favorable notes more often than the one, who thinks politicians do nothing good to the state. That is why, the conclusion – personal journalists' opinion determines the negativity of information – was made. Still, the fact the newspaper "Kauno diena" published more neutral or favorable information than "Lietuvos rytas", allows to state that objectivity and impartiality of press is possible.

This MA thesis researches how Lithuanian politicians are being represented in the press and what political stereotypes (favorable or unfavorable to the politicians) are being created. Two main Lithuanian daily newspapers – "Lietuvos rytas" and "Kauno diena" – were analysed. The research tends to prove the three main hypothesis: 1) What political information will reach the readers and the way it is covered depends on media, not on politicians; 2) The political news, published in Lithuanian press, lacks objectivity and impartiality; 3) The majority of daily political information is unfavorable to the politicians. That is the way the negative stereotypes of politicians are being created. The reserach consists on several stages. Firstly, what information – favorable or unfavorable to the politicians – is published more often. Also, it was analysed wether political notes were interpretative or descriptive. This stage contains quantative and qualitative content analysis of extended notes, where state's politicians (the members of Parliament and Government) are mentioned. The period of the research was a month (04 13 – 05 13). It was stated, the majority of the notes were written in descirptive style, nevertheless, even quite impartial notes were mostly unfavorable to the politicians. Having the aim to discover what political stereotypes are being created in the press, the discourse analysis of newspapers were made. Three main political stereotypes – "politician - swindler", "politician – truth seeker" and "politician – hooligan" were discovered. Despite the fact, 6 one of the most popular stereotypes – "politician – truth seeker" – was favorable to the politicians, the majority of repetetive stereotypes were unfavorable. The stereotypes mostly is being created by the facts of politicians' behaviour, but the journalists, giving negative actions, tend to stress it by using evaluative word or definitions. Having stated, the stereotypes are being created because of politicians' actions, it was important to find out what – politicians or media – determine what political facts will be presented to the society. The method of half – structured qualitative interview was chosen. The most often mentioned politician, two journalists, who wrote mostly, and two experts – political scientist and the chairman of Journalists' union – were interviewed. Interview revealed, political information is mostly determined by politicians' actions, but which actions will be presented to the society, depends on the journalists. The content of information could be determined by interest groups, journalists' personal attitudes and society's expectations. It was noticed, media prefers negative political aspects, because of the reason it is easy to sell. Moreover, it was discovered, the journalist, having no negative attitude to the politicians, writes neutral or favorable notes more often than the one, who thinks politicians do nothing good to the state. That is why, the conclusion – personal journalists' opinion determines the negativity of information – was made. Still, the fact the newspaper "Kauno diena" published more neutral or favorable information than "Lietuvos rytas", allows to state that objectivity and impartiality of press is possible.

The article discusses the concept of historical culture of German historian and philosopher Jörn Rüsen (b. 1938). This discussion includes the analysis of the idea of the historical culture studies that evolved from theory of historiography or metahistory (Historik). Rüsen considered as the object of Historik paradigms of historical studies conceived as hermeneutical- circle-like structures including interests, viewpoints upon the past, methods of research, forms of representation, and functions of the practical orientation of life. Historical culture includes all phenomena of the social representation of the past, public collective memory considered as expression of the historical consciousness of society or some particular social group. The structure of historical culture is defined by the interrelated cognitive, political, and aesthetic dimensions. However, neither in his earlier concept of Historik nor in the later project of the historical culture studies Rüsen provides satisfactory solution of the problems concerning epistemological status of his universal statements about the history and its representations. Are they descriptive or normative statements? A priori or empirical statements? His idea of the historical culture studies is onesidedly oriented towards the elite historical culture at the cost of neglecting the issues related to the production, consumption, commercialization of popular historical culture and its ideological functions. The ideas of the ethics of history and that of religion of history are considered as the original and bold proposals how to extend the field of the historical culture studies.

The article discusses the concept of historical culture of German historian and philosopher Jörn Rüsen (b. 1938). This discussion includes the analysis of the idea of the historical culture studies that evolved from theory of historiography or metahistory (Historik). Rüsen considered as the object of Historik paradigms of historical studies conceived as hermeneutical- circle-like structures including interests, viewpoints upon the past, methods of research, forms of representation, and functions of the practical orientation of life. Historical culture includes all phenomena of the social representation of the past, public collective memory considered as expression of the historical consciousness of society or some particular social group. The structure of historical culture is defined by the interrelated cognitive, political, and aesthetic dimensions. However, neither in his earlier concept of Historik nor in the later project of the historical culture studies Rüsen provides satisfactory solution of the problems concerning epistemological status of his universal statements about the history and its representations. Are they descriptive or normative statements? A priori or empirical statements? His idea of the historical culture studies is onesidedly oriented towards the elite historical culture at the cost of neglecting the issues related to the production, consumption, commercialization of popular historical culture and its ideological functions. The ideas of the ethics of history and that of religion of history are considered as the original and bold proposals how to extend the field of the historical culture studies.

The article discusses the concept of historical culture of German historian and philosopher Jörn Rüsen (b. 1938). This discussion includes the analysis of the idea of the historical culture studies that evolved from theory of historiography or metahistory (Historik). Rüsen considered as the object of Historik paradigms of historical studies conceived as hermeneutical- circle-like structures including interests, viewpoints upon the past, methods of research, forms of representation, and functions of the practical orientation of life. Historical culture includes all phenomena of the social representation of the past, public collective memory considered as expression of the historical consciousness of society or some particular social group. The structure of historical culture is defined by the interrelated cognitive, political, and aesthetic dimensions. However, neither in his earlier concept of Historik nor in the later project of the historical culture studies Rüsen provides satisfactory solution of the problems concerning epistemological status of his universal statements about the history and its representations. Are they descriptive or normative statements? A priori or empirical statements? His idea of the historical culture studies is onesidedly oriented towards the elite historical culture at the cost of neglecting the issues related to the production, consumption, commercialization of popular historical culture and its ideological functions. The ideas of the ethics of history and that of religion of history are considered as the original and bold proposals how to extend the field of the historical culture studies.