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The discussion about the concept of enlightenment runs through the conception of Immanuel Kant, who thematized it as an exit from the individual from his condition of intellectual minority and guardianship of those who prevent the exercise of thinking for himself, impelling the achievement of autonomy that requires freedom and to make public use of reason. Such problematization about the difficulties interposed to the process of enlightenment can be related to the problem of estrangement in Marx, making the necessary considerations in relation to the historical and social context of both philosophers. In this way, through philosophical investigation, it is possible to establish correlations of complementarities, differences and counterpoints between the different conceptions of Kant and Marx. Thus, we realize that the search for enlightenment depends on overcoming the material determinations of the set of alienations produced by the capitalist mode of production, aiming at the achievement of human emancipation understood as effective autonomous freedom.

The notions of enthusiasm and fanaticism, besides the fact that they were associated with the concrete phenomenon of religious zeal at the time of the Reformation, were also, throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the object of a literature that built a specific image of the so-called enthusiasts, be they the English Puritans, the Huguenot prophets or the Jansenist convulsionaries. By constructing this image, literature - philosophical, medical or satirical - produced at the same time the specular image of itself, sometimes as pure alterity in relation to the fanatic, sometimes relativizing this opposition. Our journey starts from some of these formulations in England at the beginning of the 17th century, and then pays attention carefully to the elaborations of Swift and Diderot about fanaticism and enthusiasm, from the beginning to the middle of the 18th century, showing that philosophy itself, often understood as the opposite of fanaticism or madness, can also become its other when it gives in to enthusiasm.

The aim of this paper is to show the link between the first luxury apologies in the eighteenth-century and the change of status of passions. The hypothesis I would like to defend is that the new approach on passions made possible the rising of a new anthropology in which the search for pleasure is accepted as legitim in political as well as in moral terms.

This article aims to bring together the thoughts of Theodor Adorno and Maurice Blanchot around the problem of humanism. The "jewish question", as we can still call it along with Marx, is the central issue of this conversation. Starting from Blanchot's intuition regarding the indestructibility of man and the role of judaism in revealing an exorbitant relation between men in the presence of Autrui, the article follows examining the seemingly opposite role of judaism in Adorno's and Horkheimer's dialectic of enlightenment. In this path, two topics stand out: the critique of hegelian dialectics, but also the rehabilitation of dialectics as an antidote to the regression of enlightenment; and the humanistic potencial retained in the concept of mimesis, especially in Adorno's work, concept which also allows the resignification of judaism inside the dialectic of enlightenment.

In his writings on modernity, technique and technical reproducibility, Benjamin proposes a theoretical view of reproducible art that dialogues with the demands of the new temporality. If the modes of artistic production are expanded by technological advances, resizing their field of action to more modern forms of expression such as radio, for example, there is here a new experimental relationship between the public and the work, in addition to a new intermediary function. The concern with the use of technique for totalitarian purposes, however, made the author formulate the demand for a politicization of art. This politicization is present in his radio work with children that is linked to the commitment to use the apparatus for enlightenment. ; Em seus escritos sobre modernidade, técnica e reprodutibilidade técnica Benjamin propõe uma visada teórica sobre a arte reprodutível que dialoga com as exigências da nova temporalidade. Se os modos de produção artística são ampliados pelos avanços tecnológicos redimensionando o seu campo de atuação para formas de expressão mais modernas como o rádio, por exemplo; há aqui uma nova relação experimental entre o público e a obra, além de uma nova função intermediadora. A preocupação com o uso da técnica para fins totalitários, entretanto, fez o autor formular a exigência de uma politização da arte. Essa politização está presente em seu trabalho radiofônico com crianças que se articula ao compromisso do uso do aparato para o esclarecimento.

Os autores, por meio de um recorte histórico, apresentam um estudo de caráter bibliográfico, a partir do qual analisam o ensino brasileiro, ao focalizar especialmente a proposta de reforma educacional realizada por Marquês de Pombal. Nessa análise, apontam para as conseqüências da proposta pombalina para a educação brasileira e portuguesa, em cujo contexto social estavam presentes idéias absolutistas, de um lado, e idéias iluministas inspiradoras de Pombal, de outro lado. Os estudos estão centrados na fase governativa de Pombal, isto é, como ministro da Fazenda do rei D. José I e, como tal, buscou empreender reformas em todas as áreas da sociedade portuguesa, inclusive atingindo o Brasil como colônia, visando dar-lhe uma unidade. A análise crítica converge para a afirmação de que a reforma pombalina foi desastrosa para a educação brasileira e, em certa medida, também para o sistema educacional português. Tal afirmação está fundamentada na seguinte questão - destruição de uma organização educacional já consolidada e com resultados seculares dos padres da Companhia de Jesus, ainda que contestáveis do ponto de vista social, histórico, científico, sem que ocorresse a implementação de uma nova proposta educacional que conseguisse dar conta das necessidades sociais. Portanto, a crítica que se pode formular, nesse sentido, e que vale para o momento atual de nossa sociedade, está relacionada às freqüentes descontinuidades das políticas educacionais. No entanto, torna-se necessário enfatizar que a substituição da metodologia eclesiástica dos jesuítas pelo pensamento pedagógico da escola pública e laica marca o surgimento, na sociedade, do espírito moderno. ; The authors center on a historical period to present a study of bibliographical character, on which basis they analyze education in Brazil by focusing specifically on the proposal for educational reform made by the Marquis of Pombal. Along the analysis they point to the consequences of the Pombaline reform to Brazilian and Portuguese education, whose social context included, on the one hand, Absolutist ideas, and on the other, the Enlightenment ideas that inspired Pombal. The studies concentrate on Pombal's period in government, namely when he, as Ministry of the Treasure of King José I, tried to carry out reforms in all areas of the Portuguese society, affecting Brazil as a colony, in an attempt to give it unity. The critical analysis converges to the conclusion that the Pombaline reform was disastrous for Brazilian education and, to a certain extent, also to the Portuguese education system. This assertion is based on the following issue: the destruction of the time-honored, consolidated - albeit questionable from social, historical, and scientific viewpoints - educational organization of the Jesuit priests, without the implementation of a new educational proposal capable of coping with societal needs. Therefore, the criticism that can be formulated here, and that is valid for the current moment of our own society, relates to the frequent discontinuities of the educational policies. However, it must be emphasized that the substitution of the ecclesiastical methodology of the Jesuits by the pedagogical thinking of the public, lay school signals the arrival, in that society, of the spirit of Modernity.

This article seeks – through a critical and explanatory analysis, based on bibliography studies of Rousseau's works, focusing mainly on Discourses and Emílio – to show how the concept of nature, in the perspective of the developed political and social theory by Rousseau, is consistent with that expressed in his pedagogical work. We intend to analyze the concept of nature when he thinks about the state of nature, the natural man and early childhood – the child Emílio – and then the civil state, the social man and the moral individual – the citizen – in order to rethink the purpose of educational action within a political project of society. By carefully exploring the political-social dimension with the pedagogical dimension in the reference works, it is possible to conclude that the pedagogical project, in Rousseau, is, at the same time, an alternative and complement to the politics agenda, and is therefore necessarily inscribed on the agenda of life in society. ; Este artículo busca, a través de un análisis crítico y explicativo, basado en estudios bibliográficos de las obras de Rousseau, centrándose principalmente en Discursos y Emílio, mostrar cómo el concepto de naturaleza, en la perspectiva de la teoría política y social desarrollada por Rousseau, es consistente con lo expresado en su trabajo pedagógico. Tenemos la intención de analizar el concepto de naturaleza cuando piensa en el estado de la naturaleza, el hombre natural y la primera infancia, el niño Emílio, y luego el estado civil, el hombre social y el individuo moral, el ciudadano, para repensar el propósito de acción educativa dentro de un proyecto político de la sociedad. Al explorar cuidadosamente la dimensión político-social con la dimensión pedagógica en los trabajos de referencia, es posible concluir que el proyecto pedagógico, en Rousseau, es, al mismo tiempo, una alternativa y un complemento de la agenda política, y por lo tanto está necesariamente inscrito en la agenda de la vida en sociedad. ; O presente artigo procura – através de uma análise crítica e explicativa, baseada em estudos de bibliografia das obras de Rousseau, centrando-se principalmente nos Discursos e em Emílio – evidenciar de que maneira o conceito de natureza, na perspectiva da teoria política e social desenvolvida por Rousseau, se coaduna com aquele expresso em sua obra pedagógica. Pretendemos analisar o conceito de natureza quando ele pensa o estado de natureza, o homem natural e a primeira infância - a criança Emílio – e depois o estado civil, o homem social e o indivíduo moral - o cidadão - tendo em vista repensar a finalidade da ação educacional dentro de um projeto político de sociedade. Explorando detidamente a dimensão político-social com a dimensão pedagógica nas obras de referência, é possível concluir que o projeto pedagógico, em Rousseau, é, a um só tempo, alternativa e complemento da pauta da política, estando, portanto, necessariamente inscrito na agenda da vida em sociedade.

The philosophy of the 19th century marked the replacement of a rational and autonomous subject for a social one. This transition can be referred to as a "crises of foundations", a term coined in the 20th century, and can be found in the works of thinkers like Dilthey, Nietzsche and Marx. In legitimizing discourses of ethics and justice, this change has highlighted a relativistic perspective. This article examines how contemporary thought has assimmilated concepts of the Universal Moral and the supposed end of the Enlightenment Project so that human subjets can be perceived nowadays as historical and social beings instead of universal ones. Therefore, our intention is not to propose a new reasoning model but analyze the most dramatic consequences of an extreme relativism whose prerrogative is the uncommensurability of moral values.

This article presents the contribution of Theodor W. Adorno to the configuration of an education capable of confronting contemporary irrationalism, through a resumption of the definition of dialectics as a critic of philosophical thought. It has modernly limited itself to rationalizing rationality to the highest power, without dwelling on the effects of its unfulfilled promises. The work of Adorno is recognized by a propensity according to which it is the responsibility of philosophy to critically reflect and clarify the way culture organizes itself. Such a proposition leads to a theoretical project that presupposes an awareness of the misconceptions of reason, in an attempt that, through enlightenment, man can construct possibilities of autonomy and emancipation. The article is organized in two parts, as follows: 1. Theorical-practical ambitions of the critical theory of society and 2) The threads that weave TW Adorno's critical theory, divided into three topics: a) The general cultural climate of late capitalism - the propensity for barbarism; b) Bankruptcy of culture - objective reason of barbarism; c) Reflexes of damaged life: the sickness of contact.

The theme of this article deals with the historical anthropology found in "The Authoritarian Personality" and grounded on "Dialectic of Enlightenment". Specifically, we approach the conceptualization that understands the drives' movements (as explained by the Freudian theory) as internal nature, foundation of the anthropological conception discussed here. By referring to anthropology and nature, we are not thinking about immutable and "biologizing" notions, but historical and contextual ones. Therefore, we use mainly the "Idea of natural history", precisely the dialectic between history and nature. In the text, Adorno deals with two movements of this dialectic: a conception of Lukács, for whom elements of history became naturalized as second nature, which can be exemplified by the hollywoodian schematism promoted by the cultural industry; the second movement, under the influence of Walter Benjamin, that deals with the historical transience of nature, when archaic remnants repressed by the dominant historical sense resurface, becoming a possibility of another historical sense. This debate is important precisely because is located at the heart of the relation between political-economy/sociology and psychoanalysis, the most relevant theoretical domains for the first generation of Critical Theory. Whatsoever we think there is an implicit anthropology for Horkheimer and Adorno - that would see the human being as naturally aggressive and destructive -, our intention is to show that if these anthropology and nature are historical, the individuals act under influence of the death drive precisely because the social environment that forms the human beings is domineering, violent, reified and alienating.

Sem dúvida a mais marcante característica da política educacional que vem sendo anunciada pelo novo governo brasileiro é a pretensão de fazer da formação moral o eixo das profundas mudanças pretendidas. Se, no campo das práticas, essa proposta ainda genérica parece de difícil execução, no terreno dos discursos ela reacende uma polêmica que se resolveu, na história da escola pública brasileira, pela aparente vitória do cognitivismo moderno sobre o conservadorismo de matriz religiosa. Pretendendo escapar aos limites desse antagonismo histórico, que teria levado da escola tradicional à escola moderna, o presente artigo propõe a análise de uma outra passagem - aquela que, na obra de Jacques Rancière, leva da crítica a um iluminismo bem-pensante até uma concepção que tem na experiência propriamente estética da realidade social e suas divisões seu principal fundamento. ; The most striking characteristic of educational policy announced by the new Brazilian government is undoubtedly the claim to make moral formation the axis of the profound changes intended. If, in the practical life this proposal seems to be quite unenforceable, in the realm of discourses it rekindles a polemic that has been solved in the history of the Brazilian public school by the apparent victory of modern cognitivism over a conservatism of religious matrix. In order to escape the limits of this historical antagonism, which would have led from the traditional school to the modern school, the present article proposes the analysis of another passage - that in the work of Jacques Rancière leads from the critique of a well-thinking enlightenment to a conception which has in the aesthetic experience of social reality and its divisions its main foundation.

O facto turístico é um facto social total – com dimensões económicas, culturais, sociais, políticas – complexo e antigo. Começou, assim poderíamos dizer, quando o indivíduo se afastou da sua aldeia, da sua cidade, para dormir, pelo menos uma noite, num lugar que não lhe era familiar. Esta definição não faz, no entanto, a diferença entre o viajante especialista – explorador, aventureiro, missionário e filósofo dos séculos das Luzes, etnólogo, arqueólogo, escritor e pintor do século XIX – e o viajante lúdico, o turista do século XX. Este artigo trata das motivações de quem se desloca: encontro do outro, busca por si mesmo, procura de uma identidade. Através de citações literárias, procura-se conhecer como se viajava ao longo do tempo, a evolução do perfil do viajante e o que tenderia a se tornar no início do século XXI. ; The phenomenon of tourism is a total social fact – with economic, cultural, social, political dimensions – both complex and old. Tourism may be said to have begin when someone left his/her village, his/her home town, to sleep, at least for one night, in an unfamiliar place. This definition, however, does not clarify the difference between the specialist traveller – explorer, adventurer, missionary and philosopher of the Enlightenment era, or ethnologist, archaeologist, writer and painter of the nineteenth century – and the leisure traveller, the twentieth century tourist. This article deals with the motivations of those who travel: the encounter with the other, the search for self-discovery, the search for identity. With the aid of literary quotations, the article attempts to discern how people have travelled in different epochs, the past evolution of the profile of the traveller and its likely evolution in the early 21st century.