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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkasavanur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 474 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 88 per cent is covered by soils, 19 percent is covered by rock lands and three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 78 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 22 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 69 per cent of the soils are very shallow (150 cm) soils.  About 8 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface, 56 per cent loamy soils and 14 per cent of the area has sandy soils at the surface.  About 9 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 55 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 13 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils.  About 78 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (9.0), 22 per cent neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 7 per cent slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 21 per cent area and about 57 per cent area is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 21 per cent area and sufficient in 57 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in 6 per cent and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 71 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 23 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Highly suitable(S1) Moderately suitable(S2) Sorghum 75(16) 83 (18) Sapota - 41(9) Maize 75(16) 83 (18) Jackfruit - - Cotton - 158(33) Jamun - - Sunflower - 88(19) Musambi - - Onion 41(9) 117 (25) Lime - - Groundnut 41(9) 139(29) Cashew - 41(9) Chilli 41(9) 117(25) Custard apple - 180(39) Sugarca ne 41(9) 139(29) Amla - 69 (14) Pomegran ate - 41(9) Tamarind - - Tomato 41(9) 117 (25) Marigold 41(9) 133(28) Guava - 117 (25) Chrysanthem um 41(9) 133(28) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Chikasavanur-2 micro-watershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1504' – 1506' North latitudes and 75035' – 75037' East longitudes, covering an area of about 322 ha, bounded by Fatgoan Badani, Nilogal, Chikasavanur and Devihal villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 150- 180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Chikasavanur-2 Microwatershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 62.7 to 37.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 50.9 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 72.5 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) is around 44.4 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 77.8 per cent.  About 44.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (66.7 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among all the sample households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 33.3 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 7.84 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making is around 58 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.61 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The total cultivated land by dry land condition among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 22.2 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 33.3 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 106480 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 137948 per household; about 33.3 per cent of sample farmers owen plough and bullock cart.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 32550 per household; about 25 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 819.2 grams (1634.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 88.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 12537 per household. Among all sample farm households are above poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs. 1114. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 467 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 171969 per year for the total area of 474.16 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs. 20433/ ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in lemon (Rs. 415454) followed by horse gram (Rs. 9228), sunflower (Rs. 5480), cowpea (Rs. 3575), Ragi (Rs. 1356) and sorghum negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2213/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize greengram (Rs 2687) followed by sorghum (Rs. 1976) and maize (Rs. 1976).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs. 49758), sorghum (Rs. 37643), greengram (Rs. 37317), sunflower (Rs. 33256) and maize (Rs. 21598). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (65.9 %) followed by greengram (17.4 %), cotton (8.4 %), sorghum (5.6 %) and sunflower (2.8 %).  In Chikasavanur-2 micro-watershed, major soil are soil of alluvial landscape of Chikasavanur (CRS) and Kanchanahali (KNH) soil series are having shallow soil depth covered around 20.59 per cent and 9.61 per cent of areas respectively. On the soil farmers growing crops are maize and cotton. Kutegoudanahundi (KGH) series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 18.07 per cent of areas; crops on greengram (38%), maize (44%), sorghum (12 %) and sunflower (6%).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sunflower Rs.57747/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.20).  In cotton the cost of cultivation Rs. 34446/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.47).  In maize the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 32642/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.05) and Rs.17944/ha in CRS soil (with BCR of 81.34).  In greengram the cost of cultivation Rs. 19891/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.17) and sorghum the cost of cultivation Rs 21936/ha in KGH soil (with BCR of 1.10).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (71.5 to 81.8 %), cotton (56.0 %), sorghum (83.9 %), green gram (27.7 %), sunflower (38.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Babulgaon-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 404 ha in Babulgaon-2 microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm, of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and three per cent is covered by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 34 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  About 87 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to deep and very deep (75- >150 cm) and 10 per cent are shallow (25-50 cm) soils.  An area of 75 per cent has clayey soils at the surface and 22 per cent soils are loamy at the surface.  About 80 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 17 per cent gravelly to very gravelly (15-60% gravel) soils.  About 18 per cent of the area are very high (>200mm/m), 32 per cent medium (100- 150 mm/m) and 47 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) in organic carbon and 5 per cent medium (0.5-0.75%) in organic carbon.  Major area of 85 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in about 2 per cent area.  About 30 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 4 per cent is deficient in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 27 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (18) 185 (46) Sapota 23 (6) 212(53) Maize - 185 (46) Jackfruit 97 (24) 151 (38) Red gram - 256 (64) Jamun 97 (24) 222 (55) Sunflower 71 (18) 185 (46) Musambi 23 (6) 296 (74) Cotton 65 (16) 187 (46) Lime 23 (6) 296 (74) Sugarcane - 185 (46) Cashew 103 (25) 136 (34) Soybean 71 (18) 200(50) Custard apple 181 (45) 144 (36) Bengalgram 71 (18) 185 (46) Amla 178 (44) 147 (36) Guava 23 (6) 212(52) Tamarind 97(24) 89 (22) Mango - 100 (25) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining an ecological balance and also helps in mitigating the climate change.Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17040' – 17042' North latitudes and 77014' – 77016' East longitudes, covering an area of about 404 ha, bounded by Mustari, Udbal, Bannahalli and Bilkhera villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed in Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk and Bidar district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 68.1 to 31.9 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 57.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 85.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 50 per cent.  Fire wood and liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 70 per cent.  About 40 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 30 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system are among all households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities, among all these study area household are not having toilet facilities.  Women participation in decisions making are around 90 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.63 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to marginal and small farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition of among all sample households. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 19.1per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 42.6 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20229 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.42667 per household; about 66.9 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 827grams (1879 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 82.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.31803 per household. Among all farm households are comes under the below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 2039. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1406 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 548361 per year for the total area of 403 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 22424/ ha/year. Per hector food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs. 35746) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 26202) and maize (Rs. 5324).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sugarcane (Rs. 146532) followed by redgram (Rs.63166) and maize (Rs. 25152). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (17.3 %) followed by redgram (53.8%) sugarcane (25.5 %).  In Babulgaon-2 micro watershed, major soils of Babulgoan (BGN) series are having very soil depth cover around 17.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram. Mudhanal (MNL) are also having deep soil depth cover around 3.7 % of area, major crops are redgram. Muthangi (MTN) soil series having moderately soil depth cover around 19.7 % of areas, crops are sugarcane. Mustarwadi (MWD) and soil series having very deep soil depth cover 24.7 % of areas crops are maize (29 %) and redgram (71%). 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram ranges between Rs. 66484/ha in MNL soil (with of BCR of 0.83) and Rs. 41914/ha in MWD soil (with of BCR 1.15).  In sugarcane the cost of cultivation in MTN soil is Rs. 123820/ha (with of BCR 1.21).  In maize the cost of cultivation Rs. 23492/ha in MWD soil (with BCR of 1.23)  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (2.7 to 48%) followed by sugarcane (10.7%) and maize (75.2%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The land resource inventory of Gopalagiri Colony-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 119 ha out of total area of 576 ha in Gundlupet Taluk, Chamarajanagar District Karnataka. The remaining area of about 456 ha is under Forest. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during the south – west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 21 per cent is covered by soils, 79 per cent by forests and 150 cm) soils.  About 2 per cent area has loamy soils and 19 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 3 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 1 per cent has nearly level (0-1%), 20 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) and 0.75%).  About 11 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about one per cent has medium (145-337 kg/ha)  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in all the soils.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 4 per cent and sufficient in 17 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 72 (12) 47(9) Guava 96(16) 10(2) Maize 100 (17) 3 (1) Banana 94(16) 25(5) Red gram 94(16) 25(5) Jackfruit 94(16) 10(2) Horsegram 94(16) 25(5) Jamun 94(16) 26(5) Fieldbean 94(16) 25(5) Musambi 94(16) 26(5) Groundnut - 103 (18) Lime 94(16) 26(5) Sunflower 56(10) 61(11) Cashew 94(16) 10(2) Cotton 72(12) 3(1) Custard apple 94(16) 26(5) Onion 94(16) 25(5) Amla 94(16) 26(5) Potato 94(16) 9(2) Tamarind 94(16) 26(5) Beans 94(16) 25(5) Marigold 94(16) 25(5) Beetroot 94(16) 9(2) Chrysanthemum 94(16) 25(5) Mango 96(16) 10(2) Turmeric 94(16) 9(2) Sapota 96(16) 10(2) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Gopalagiri Colony-2 micro-watershed (Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11042' – 11044' North latitudes and 76034' – 76036' East longitudes, covering an area of about 576 ha, bounded by Kannagal, Honnegaudanahalli, Hangala and Hosalhalli villages with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Gopalagiri Colony-2 micro-watershed (Basavapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators  Male and female ratio is 49 to 51 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 59.1 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 75.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) among the all sample households.  Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all households.  About 90 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 20.0 percent of farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities among the all sample households.  Institutional participation is only 10.2 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 60 per cent of households were found. 2 Economic Indicators  The average land holding is 0.6 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 63.9 % and irrigated land is 36.1 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 73.4 per cent followed by the agriculture is the main and government service is subsidiary occupation of 2.1 percent of the sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.59791 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 129479 per household, about 60 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 19749 per household; all sample household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 731.6 grams (1574.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs 43153 per household. About 70 per cent of farm households are above poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1199. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 642 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 76428 per year for the total area of 576.5 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 26640/ha/year. Per hectare food production services is maximum in onion (Rs. 68252) followed by turmeric (Rs. 52922), maize (Rs. 33910), beans (Rs. 30467), ragi (Rs. 13282), horse gram (Rs. 12725) and groundnut is negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 3474/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs. 5592) followed by maize (Rs. 2608) and ragi (Rs. 2223).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs.416385) followed by maize (Rs. 57387), turmeric (Rs. 35812), sunflower (Rs. 30236), horse gram (Rs. 22808), onion (Rs. 20155), groundnut (Rs. 19448) and ragi (Rs. 15092). 3 Economic Land Evaluation  The major cropping pattern is maize (27.7 %) followed by sunflower (25.4 %), turmeric (14.8 %), horse gram (11.4 %), ragi (10.3 %), groundnut (5.1 %) and onion (5.0 %),  In Gopalagiri colony-2 micro-watershed, major soil are soil of Annurkeri (ARK) soils are very deep and well drained soil depth covered around 9.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing maize. Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) soils are very deep and well drained soil depth cover around 7.7 % of area; the crops are maize (32.6%), ragi (32.6 %) and sunflower (34.6 %). Beemanabeedu (BMB) soils are very deep and moderately well drained, soil depth covered 2.7 % of areas, crop are beans (8.2 %), groundnut (6.7%), horse gram (6.3%), maize (20.9%), onion (6.3%), ragi (6.3%), sunflower (25.8 %) and turmeric (19.0%).  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs. 39630/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 2.02) and Rs.27088/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 2.36).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.38023/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.08) and Rs.30398/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.32).  In ragi the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.21275/ha (with BCR of 1.87), and Rs.20086/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.84).  In beans the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs 25108/ha (with BCR of 2.40).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in BMB soil Rs. 39793/ha (with BCR of 1.02).  In horse gram cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.16915/ha (with BCR of 1.75).  In onion the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs 79948/ha (with BCR of 1.85) and turmeric the cost of cultivation in BMB soil is Rs.106172/ha (with BCR of 1.51).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. 4  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (38.0 to 55.3 %), groundnut (59.1 %), horse gram (24.1 %), onion (69.6 %), ragi (59.5 %), sunflower (45.5 %) and turmeric (7.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; land resource inventory of Chikasavanur-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 388 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, ten per cent by rock lands and four per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 10 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 87 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 13 per cent is not suitable for agriculture.  About 30 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) to shallow (25-50 cm) and about 25 per cent are moderately deep (>150 cm) soils. An area of 31 per cent is deep to very deep (100->150 cm).  About 49 per cent of the area has loamy soils at the surface and 36 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface. A very small area of about 6 per cent is sandy soils at the surface.  About 32 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 70 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3% slopes) slope lands and 17 per cent area has nearly level lands (0-1% slopes).  An area of about 59 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 28 per cent moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 21 per cent has soils that are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 40 per cent strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to >9.0), 13 per cent neutral (pH 6.5 - 7.3) and 2 per cent under slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 64 per cent area, 18 per cent area is low (20 ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 33 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 38 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in 16 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient in about 68 per cent area and sufficient in 19 per cent area.  Available manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  Available copper is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in area of 80 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 83 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 23 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Chikasavanur-3 micro-watershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1504' – 1507' North latitudes and 75035' – 75037' East longitudes, covering an area of about 388 ha, bounded by Bhikonati, Hullur, Belhatti and Nilogal villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Chikasavanur-3 Microwatershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 51 to 49 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is 64.4 around per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 82.3 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 60 per cent and scheduled caste (ST) 40 per cent.  Firewood is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent.  About 70.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Farm households are having MGNREGA card only 60 per cent for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grain through public distribution system is around 80 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 60 per cent of sample households.  Institutional participation is only 4.4 per cent of sample households.  Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevalent among 2.2 per cent.  Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all the sample households was found. 2 Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.13 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The rainfed land of 92.6 per cent and irrigated land 7.9 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation among 17.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 67.6 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.13298. per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.7708 per household, about 100 per cent of sample farmers having weeder and plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs. 37066 per household; about 73.3 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 945 grams (1947 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 22423 per household. About 80.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1273. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 322 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 108696 per year for the total area of 388 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 8265/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 5848) followed by sorghum (Rs. 653), horse gram (Rs. 12634) and cotton (Rs. 13926).  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 811/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 1350), sorghum (Rs. 659) and horse gram (Rs. 425).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs. 42299) followed by horse gram (Rs. 19337), maize (Rs. 23496) and sorghum (Rs. 25095). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (52.6 %) followed by horse gram (26.7 %), cotton (14.7 %) and sorghum (6.0 %).  In Chikkasavanur-3 micro-watershed, major soil series are Mudnakodu soils series are having shallow soil depth covers around 2.6 % of area. on this soil farmers are presently growing horsegram (50 %) and sorghum (50 %).Thamadahalli series soils are moderately shallow soil depth covers around 15.6 % of area. major crops are cotton (59.8 %) and maize (40.1 %), Chikkamegheri soils series are moderately deep soil depth covers around 6.74 % of area. Major crops are horsegram. Kanchikere soils are moderately deep soil depth covers around 10.5 % of area. major crops are cotton (65.7 %) and maize (34.2 %), Gollarahatti soils series are having moderately deep soil depth covers around 8.13 % of area. Major crops are maize. Kengaki soils are having very deep soil depth covers around 4.2 % of area; major crops are maize.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for horse gram ranges between Rs. 20923/ha in MUK soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs. 10349/ha in CKM soil (with BCR of 3.19).  In cotton the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 19136/ha in TDH soil (with BCR of 1.38) and Rs. 18104/ha in KKR soil (with BCR of 1.95).  In maize the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 23918 /ha in KGK soil (with BCR of 1.27) and Rs. 20070 /ha GHT soil (with BCR of 1.22).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation in MUK soil is Rs. 15813/ha (with of 1.08).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. 4  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in horse gram (32.5 to 71.4 %), sorghum (70.7 %), coconut (34.9 to 81.4 %) and maize (75.2 to 78.1 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramapura-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 577 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 549 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 0.05 ha by rock outcrops and about 28 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 26 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 59 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 36 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 26 per cent of loamy soils and 64 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 2 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 32 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m) and 4 per cent area is very low (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75).  About 40 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 50 per is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 5 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha).  About 70 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 25 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 77 per cent and deficient in 18 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 522(91) Sapota - - Maize - 183(32) Pomegranate - 339(59) Bajra - 522(91) Musambi - 339(59) Groundnut - 183(32) Lime - 339(59) Sunflower - 339(59) Amla - 522(91) Redgram - 339(59) Cashew - - Bengal gram - 522(91) Jackfruit - - Cotton - 522(91) Jamun - 326(57) Chilli - 523(91) Custard apple - 523(91) Tomato - 183(32) Tamarind - 326(57) Drumstick - 339(59) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 523(91) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 523(91)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Ramapura-2 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16033' – 16034'23.736" North latitudes and 77016' – 77019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 576.6 ha, bounded by Ramapura, Balacheda, Rachanalli and Daddala Villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Ramapura-2 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 55.4 to 44.6 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 57.7 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 48.8 per cent.  Social groups belong to scheduled caste / scheduled tribes are around 36.8 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 100 per cent.  About 23.7 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 15.8 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 94.7 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 36.8 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 94.7 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 1.7 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 44.7 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 30.2 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12212 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.1944.8 per household, about 38.4 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.38265 per household; about 82.7 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1207.5 grams (3010.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 30.7 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 63498 per household. About 7.6 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.3279. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 2236 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 1115717 per year for the total area of 576.6 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 5610/ ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in greengram (Rs.8370) followed by redgram (Rs.7306), cotton (Rs.3491) and groundnut is negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.3775/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs.2400) followed by paddy (Rs.1500), cotton (Rs.1406) and redgram (Rs.270 /ha).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in greengram (Rs. 75812) followed by redgram (Rs. 47218), cotton (Rs. 39009) and groundnut (Rs. 22905). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (58.8 %) followed by cotton (26.8 %), bengalgram (3.9 %), groundnut (3.9 %), greengram (3.5 %) and paddy (3.1 %). 3  In Ramapura-2 micro watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Yalleri (YLR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 25.57 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (53.2 %) and redgram (46.8 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Anur (ANR) are also having deep soil deep cover around 0.97 % of area, the crops are cotton (44.4 %) and redgram was 55.6 % each. Hegganakera (HGN) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 23.42 % of areas, crops are cotton (19.4 %), greengram (18.6 %) and redgram (62.0 %). Halagera (HLG) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 15.53 per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are cotton (46.3%), greengram (4.5 %), groundnut (22.7 %) and redgram (26.5 %). Kudlura (KDR) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 3.31 % of area, the major crop grown is paddy (70.6 %) and redgram (29.4 %). Kyathanala (KYT) soil series are having shallow soil depth covers around 3.31 % of area, the major crop grown is redgram (100 %). Sowrashtrahalli (SWR) and Tumkur (TMK) soil series having deep and very deep soil depth cover 1.54 % and 0.41 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton, redgram and greengram.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 43158/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 1.25) and Rs. 15877/ha in KYT soil (with BCR of 1.95).  In cotton the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 43132/ha in HGN soil (with BCR of 1.1) and Rs. 32505/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 1.12).  In greengram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 40480/ha in HLG soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs. 31151/ha in SWR soil (with BCR of 1.19).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation in HLG soil is Rs. 33168/ha (with BCR of 1.04) and paddy cultivation in KDR soil is Rs. 28742/ha (with BCR of 1.7).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. 4  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (9.1 to 61 %), cotton (35.2 % to 50.5 %), paddy (9.1 %) and groundnut (7.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanekal-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 483 ha in Kanekal-2 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 94 per cent is covered by soils, 6 per cent by habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 6 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 38 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 6 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm) and about 51 per cent soils are deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 49 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 42 per cent loamy soils and 3 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  An area of about 88 per cent has non-gravelly and 7 per cent are gravelly.  About 47 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent low (51-100mm/m) and about 15 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 3 per cent has soils that are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 5 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 49 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 4 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kanekal-2 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 27 (6) 337 (70) Sapota - 46 (9) Maize 27 (6) 110 (23) Guava - 46 (9) Red gram - 273(56) Pomegranate - 273 (56) Bajra 27(6) 356 (74) Jackfruit - 27 (6) Ground nut - 144 (30) Jamun - 246(51) Sunflower - 254 (53) Musambi - 273 (56) Cotton 75 (16) 289 (60) Lime - 273 (56) Bengalgram 75 (16) 289 (60) Cashew - 27 (6) Chilli - 357(74) Custard apple 27 (6) 337 (70) Tomato 27 (6) 129 (27) Amla 27 (6) 337 (70) Drumstick - 273 (56) Tamarind - 246 (51) Mulberry - 27 (6) Marigold - 383 (79) Mango - 47(10) Chrysanthemum - 383 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the micro watershed. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Kanikal-2 Microwatershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16036' – 16038' North latitudes and 770 17' – 76019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 482.51 ha, bounded by Kanikal, Neelahalli & Gudalagunta villages. Agro Ecological Sub Region (AESR) 6.2: Central and Western Maharashtra Plateau and North Karnataka Plateau and North Western Telangana Plateau, hot moist semi-arid ESR with shallow and medium loamy to clayey Black soil (medium and deep clayey Black soil as inclusion), medium to high AWC and LGP 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kanikal-2 Microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 56.7 to 43.3 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 58.0 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 33.6 per cent.  Social groups belong to SC/ST is around 15.4 per cent.  Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 100 per cent.  About 53.8 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  Majority of farm households (23.8 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments.  Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 84.6 per cent  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 23.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation is decisions making are around 53.8 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 3.1 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and semi-medium farmers. The dry land account 60.8 % and irrigated land is 23 % of total cultivated land among the sample farmers. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 17.3 per cent and Agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 65.4 per cent.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12632 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media.  The average farm assets a value is around Rs.10594 per household, about 69.2 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average livestock value is around Rs.24722 per livestock; about 69 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1018.8 grams (2232.1 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 15.3 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.30999 per household.  The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs.3097 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1328.92 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs.786723 per year for the total area of 482.5 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs 12599/ ha/year (Table 21 and Figure 11). Per hectare food production services is maximum in redgram (Rs.9415) followed by wheat (Rs.4139), groundnut (Rs.4070) and cotton (Rs.1842)  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.1662/ ha/year (Table 23). Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in paddy (Rs.1482) followed by groundnut (Rs.1142).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum (Table 22 and Figure 12) in wheat (Rs.53720) followed by redgram (Rs.51938), groundnut (Rs.32067) and cotton (Rs.31513). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is red gram (37.4 %) followed by cotton (28.0 %), groundnut (23.5 %), wheat (5.5 %), maize (2.8 %) and paddy (2.8%).  In Kanikal-2 micro-watershed, major soils are soils of alluvial landscape of Sambara (SBR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 15.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram (100 %). Soil of 3 Yalleri (YLR) is also having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 7.5 % of area; the crops are paddy (14.3 %) and redgram was 85.7 % each. Nagalapur (NGP) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 5.4 % of areas, crops are redgram (100%). Mundargi (MDG) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 9.7% of area; crops are groundnut (25.0%) and red gram (75.0%). Bhimanahalli (BMN) soil series are having Very deep soil depth cover around 0.5 % of area, respectively. The major crops grown are cotton (22.2 %) and redgram (77.8%). Duppali (DPL) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth covers around 12.31 % of area, the major crop grown is cotton (46.2%), groundnut (38.5%) and wheat (15.4). Madhwara (MDR) soil series having very deep soil depth cover 31.6 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton.  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs.44678/ha in SBR soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs.16439/ha in NGP soil (with BCR of 1.35).  In cotton the cost of cultivation range between Rs 39247/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.06) and Rs.28259/ha in BMN soil (with BCR of 1.09).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 63430/ha in DPL soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 45749/ha in MDG soil (with BCR of 1.1).  In wheat cost of cultivation in DPL soil is Rs.49805/ha in (with BCR of 1.08).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. Fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (3 to 66.3 %), cotton (0 to 63.6 %), groundnut (0 to 52.8 %), wheat is negative return. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Guralgunta Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 580 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 570 ha (98%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 10 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 14 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 55per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 43 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 41 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 54 per cent clayey soils, 3 per cent are sandy at the surface.  About 97 per cent area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 15 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 39 per cent soils are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 31 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 - 8.4) and 14 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 83 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 16 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 98 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and less than 1 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 8 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 65 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1(0.13) 430(73) Sapota - 15(3) Maize 1(0.13) 124(21) Pomegranate - 322(64) Bajra 1(0.13) 444(77) Musambi 187(33) 135(24) Groundnut - 58(9) Lime 187(33) 135(24) Sunflower - 308(53) Amla 1(0.13) 429(74) Redgram - 322(55) Cashew - 1(0.13) Bengal gram 187(32) 245(42) Jackfruit - 1(0.13) Cotton 187(32) 244(42) Jamun - 316(54) Chilli - 381(66) Custard apple 188(32) 242(42) Tomato 1(0.13) 138(24) Tamarind - 316(54) Drumstick - 322(55) Mulberry - 1(0.13) Mango - - Marigold - 446(76) Guava - 15(3) Chrysanthemum - 446(76)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Guralgunta micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16036' – 16038' North latitudes and 770 18' – 77020' East longitudes, covering an area of about 579.68 ha, bounded by Gudalagunta, Madhawara, Sambara and Neelahalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Guralgunta micro-watershed in Yadgiri taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 56.2 to 43.8 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 60.56 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 51.9 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 51.1 per cent.  Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households.  About 23.4 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 17.02 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 95.74 per cent.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 31.91 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 59.6 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.11 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The account for dry land of 99.10 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation is only 26.7 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 36.4 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.68834 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs.110163 per household, about 63.8 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.22533 per household; about 83.56 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 829.2 grams (1930.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 51 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 28666 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.2337. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.7421/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in castor (Rs.27044) followed by groundnut (Rs.12645), paddy (Rs.8306), cotton (Rs. 6273), red gram (Rs. 5098), sorghum (Rs. 657), maize (Rs. 158) and greengram is a negative returns.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2076/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 4355) followed by sorghum (Rs. 2470), paddy (Rs.1067) and groundnut (Rs. 412).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in castor (Rs.95000) followed by green gram (Rs.76760), redgram (Rs. 50465), cotton (Rs. 46165), paddy (Rs. 40001), groundnut (Rs. 35830), sorghum (Rs. 33879) and maize (Rs. 26734). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is redgram (55.8 %) followed by cotton (19.2 %), paddy (6.9 %), groundnut (4.2 %), maize (3.2 %), bengalgram (2.8%) and greengram (0.9 %). 3  The total cost of cultivation in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.54130/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs.42145/ha in large farmers (with BCR of 1.09).  In maize the cost of cultivation range between Rs.75798/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.03) and Rs.40397/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.07).  In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs.46222/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.12) and Rs.12089/ha in large farmers (with BCR of 1.63).  In castor the cost of cultivation is Rs.52756/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.51).  In greengram the cost of cultivation is Rs.45273/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.09).  In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between is Rs.51484/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.61) and Rs.31198/ha in semi medium farmers (with BCR of 1.12).  In paddy the cost of cultivation range between Rs.52937/ha in large farmers (with BCR of 1.21) and Rs.24122/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.16).  In sorghum the cost of cultivation is Rs.21573/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.14).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (22.28 to 42.2 %), groundnut (27.7 % to 54.6 %), maize (67.3 to 78.42 %), paddy (36.7 to 82.3 %), redgram (5.32 % to 63.1 %) and sorghum (60.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

La depuración de aguas residuales es una problemática presente a nivel mundial, acentuándose en zonas remotas sin acceso a colectores municipales de depuración. Las aguas residuales pueden ocasionar episodios de contaminación en acuíferos y en aguas superficiales, si la descarga se realiza en cauces naturales. En la búsqueda de nuevas tecnologías para intentar solventar este problema se tiene cada vez más en cuenta la sostenibilidad con el medioambiente. Entre estas tecnologías, los humedales construidos se postulan como sistemas secundarios, y en muchos casos terciarios, para la depuración de aguas residuales. Estos sistemas emulan los procesos de depuración de aguas llevados a cabo por la naturaleza y son capaces de producir efluentes aptos para ser vertidos o reutilizados. En el presente trabajo se ha planteado la evaluación de la efectividad depuradora de un humedal construido de tipo híbrido, sobre los vertidos de aguas residuales domésticas generadas por una vivienda unifamiliar sin posibilidad de acceso a colectores municipales. Para ello se seleccionó una vivienda aislada en la que se acababa de instalar un humedal construido, situada en el campo de Elche donde el clima es mediterráneo semiárido. El sistema constaba de una depuradora de oxidación total a modo de decantador primario, un humedal construido de flujo subsuperficial plantado con Phragmites australis y un humedal construido de flujo superficial, plantado con diferentes especies vegetales higrófitas, que actuaba también a modo de depósito de evaporación total del residuo. Para el desarrollo del trabajo se realizaron muestreos seriados, desde el desarrollo inicial del humedal construido hasta su régimen normal de funcionamiento. Los parámetros analíticos estudiados fueron los que marca la legislación para catalogar a las aguas residuales tratadas como vertido según el R.D. 509/1996, o para su reutilización como uso agrícola calidad 2.1 según el R.D. 1620/2007. Otros parámetros analíticos estudiados fueron pH, temperatura, aceites y grasas, tensioactivos aniónicos y catiónicos, compuestos nitrogenados, fosfatos, contenido de oxígeno, sólidos decantables, % NaCl y sólidos totales disueltos (TDS), y también la biocarga bacteriana más representativa para comprobar la efectividad en el proceso de depuración. Las aguas residuales domésticas presentaron un carácter medio-fuerte, estando influenciadas por los hábitos particulares de consumo familiar y poniendo de manifiesto el carácter genuino de cada agua residual. El agua residual tratada por el sistema de humedales construidos cumplió, durante el primer año estudiado, con los parámetros exigidos por la legislación para verter y reutilizar durante el primer año de funcionamiento. Los efluentes del segundo año no cumplieron con las exigencias legales debido a desajustes hídricos en el humedal subsuperficial, desajustes que afectaron también al humedal superficial situado posteriormente. El desajuste hídrico se debió a un secado total, con aparición de vías preferentes de circulación de agua al comienzo del segundo año de estudio, situación que se repitió al año siguiente. Estos hechos derivaron en un desajuste en el lecho del sistema, teniendo como consecuencia el incumplimiento de la legislación. Las causas se atribuyen a un excesivo desarrollo vegetativo, derivado del sobredimensionamiento del sistema. El humedal construido de flujo superficial presentó fenómenos de evaporación y concentración típicos derivados de las condiciones climáticas. Para solventar el problema de la excesiva proliferación de algas, se estudió un sistema de filtración y luz ultravioleta que resultó ser efectivo. Considerando los datos analíticos se plantea el redimensionamiento del humedal subsuperficial, ya que el estudiado se estima es 2,2 veces superior al calculado. Debido a que el humedal se ubica en una zona mediterránea árida, con alto déficit hídrico, sería inconsecuente no considerar la posibilidad del aprovechamiento del agua tratada en humedales híbridos, en lugar de la evaporación total ya que se ha comprobado que son capaces de obtener afluentes compatibles con las exigencias del R.D. 1620/2007. Sewage treatment is a worldwide problem that is exacerbated in remote areas that don't have access to municipal sewers. Sewage can cause pollution episodes in ground water and surface water, if wastewater is deposited in natural channels. In the development of new technologies to address the problems of sewage treatment, environmental sustainability is increasingly taken into account. Among these technologies, constructed wetlands are postulated as secondary systems, and in many cases tertiary, for wastewater treatment. These systems imitate the water purification processes performed by nature and are capable of producing effluent suitable for discharge or reuse. The following project has been focused to evaluate the effectiveness of a hybrid constructed wetland on the treatment of domestic wastewater generated by a single family without access to municipal sewers. For this, an isolated house in which a constructed wetland had just been installed was selected. The house was located in the countryside in Elche (Spain), where the climate is Mediterranean-semiarid. The system consist in a total oxidation filter that work as primary settling tank, a constructed wetland of subsurface flow planted with Phragmites australis, and a constructed wetland of surface flow planted with different hygrophilous plant species, which also acted as a reservoir for evaporation residue. For the project's development, samples were taken during various stages ranging from the initial development of the wetland until its regular operation. The laboratory parameters studied were those outlined in RD 509/1996 regarding the labeling of treated sewage as waste, as well as those outlined in RD 1620/2007 regarding reuse of waters for agricultural purposes with quality standards of 2.1. Other analytical parameters such as pH, temperature, oils and fats, anionic and cationic surfactants, nitrogen compounds, phosphate, oxygen content, settleable solids, % NaCl and total dissolved solids (TDS), and also the more representative bioburden to check the effectiveness of the treatment process. Domestic wastewater had an average-strong character, being influenced by the particular household consumption habits. The wastewater treated by the constructed wetlands system were agree, during the first year of operation, with the parameters required by the law for the dumping and reuse of waters. The effluent of the second year did not meet the legal requirements due to changes in water flow in the subsurface water wetland that later affected the wetland's surface, as water flow favored certain areas over others. At the beginning of the study's second year, the constructed wetland subsurface flow suffered a complete drying and the appearance of preferred paths of water flow, issues which were repeated again the following year. These issues led to a water and ion imbalance in the bed of the system, resulting in non-compliance with the established legislation. Excessive vegetative growth, resulting from the oversized system, was responsible for the imbalance. The constructed wetland surface flow showed typical phenomena of evaporation and concentration resulting from weather conditions; these phenomena were directly related to the system's failure to comply with some of the required parameters. To solve the problem of excessive algae growth, a filtration and UV irradiation system proved to be effective. Considering the analytical data, a resizing of constructed wetland subsurface flow was suggested, because the study is estimated 2.2 times higher than that calculated. As the constructed wetland is located in an arid Mediterranean area with high water deficit, it would be imprudent not to pursue the possibility of treating water in wetland hybrids, rather than in total evaporation systems, since it has proven effective in obtaining effluent that complies with the requirements of RD 1620/2007.

Acknowledgements Funding for this publication was provided by the New Zealand Government to support the objectives of the Livestock Research Group of the Global Research Alliance on Agricultural Greenhouse Gases. Individual authors work contribute to the following projects for which support has been received: Climate smart use of Norwegian organic soils (MYR, 2017-2022) project funded by the Research Council of Norway (decision no. 281109); Scottish Government's Strategic Research Programme, SuperG (under EU Horizon 2020 programme); DEVIL (NE/M021327/1), Soils-R-GRREAT (NE/P019455/1) and the EU H2020 project under Grant Agreement 774378—Coordination of International Research Cooperation on Soil Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture (CIRCASA); to project J-001793, Science and Technology Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada; and New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE) core funding. Thanks to Alasdair Noble and the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a draft of this paper and to Anne Austin for editing services. ; Peer reviewed ; Publisher PDF

Bill introduced by the Texas House of Representatives relating to the necessity of hearings regarding the dissolution or conversion of certain conservation and reclamation districts.

The fields of hydrology and fluvial geomorphology get more and more attention in the general public. The reason for this is changed climate patterns with increased frequencies of storms and river flooding and as a result changed geomorphology and living conditions for the inhabitants of the area. With the development of 3D geovisualization, hydrological and geomorphological processes can be better simulated and visualized. Thus not only the domain specialists, but also the general public can appreciate very complex hydrological processes and resulting geomorphology. This is of great value since a high frequency of storms and flooding has been a big issue for politicians, planners, and the general public. It is in this sense that 3D geovisualization can be an important tool for analysis and communication. Complex hydrological and geomorphological processes can be effectively simulated and analyzed by the domain specialists while efficient and effective visualization provides a common platform for communication among domain specialists and the general public. This paper will discuss and illustrate these issues using a case study of geomorphology along the Reventazón River, downstream from the Cachí Reservoir in Costa Rica, due to the release of extreme amounts of sediment during flushing of the reservoir.

261 p. The purpose of the Columbia River and Tributaries Study is to provide an up-to-date (1974) review of the main Columbia River system development. This study inventories and examines problems and areas of concern known to public and governmental agencies and includes comments on the status and tentative disposition of proposed action on many of these concerns.