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East-Central & Eastern Europe was the core zone in the epoch of world wars & revolution. Violence raged in unprecedented form here. The region was caught between the fronts of National Socialism & Soviet Communism; it was the main theatre of wars, policies of social & ethnic cleansing, the genocide against the Jews, a scorched earth policy, & enormous forced population & refugee movements. There is no language capable of finding a single denominator. Only when all the nameless millions of victims of this violence have been named can there be any serious talk of a European memory. Adapted from the source document.

Ethnic 'cleansing' is the dark side of modern democratization and the formation of nation states. Beginning in the 19th century, the Balkans and colonies outside Europe became the laboratories for this form of national problem solving. After 1914 these instruments of violence struck back on the European continent. Michael Schwartz describes the global context of ethnic 'cleansing'. Michael Schwartz, Institut für Zeitgeschichte München-Berlin und Universität Münster.

Reports on ethnic cleansing in the town of Zvornik, northeastern Bosnia; resulting violence, forced movements of population, and deportation.

In summer 1941, bloody pogroms & massacres of Jews occurred in towns & villages in Eastern Europe that had been occupied by the Wehrmacht. The perpetrators were German soldiers & policemen, in particular, members of the notorious Einsatzgruppen, & members of the local non-Jewish population Latvians, Lithuanians, Poles, Ukrainians, & Romanians. The main cause of this wave of violence was a fatal combination of indigenous hatred of the Jews, which had become radicalized under Soviet occupation, & the methodical actions the German occupiers. Events in northeastern Poland show this clearly. Adapted from the source document.

In the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, the Member States of the UN agreed to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing & crimes against humanity & that the international community, through the UN, has the responsibility to use peaceful means yet is prepared to take coercive action, through the Security Council, if states fail to fulfill their responsibilities. However, some questions remain unanswered. Fear of misusage, the concept of sovereignty & the veto right are major obstacles for the implementation of the "Responsibility to Protect." Although the concept has gained support in the academic community, civil society, some governments & the UN it remains at present an "emerging norm" at most, rather than being the guiding principle of international relations or part of international law. Adapted from the source document.

Two pogroms that took place in Lvov, one at the end of the WWI & one at the beginning of the German-Soviet war, are discussed here. In Nov 1918, the perpetrators were recruited in the main from the Polish population, & in July 1941, they were mainly drawn from the Ukrainian population. Common to both groups was the charge they leveled at the Jews of having previously acted in a hostile & antagonistic manner. While the Polish government condemned the pogrom in 1918, the later -- & far bloodier -- pogrom in 1941 formed part of the National Socialist program of murder & was a prelude to genocide. Adapted from the source document.

The NATO air strikes to end ethnic cleansing in Kosovo have renewed the ongoing controversy regarding the application of force. Yugoslavia & Russia take the position that such action violates the UN Charter's ban on aggressive use of force & is illegal. While most articles focus on the legality or illegality of humanitarian intervention, this issue has been raised to the level of the International Court in The Hague & requires a systematic approach. Arguments against the Yugoslavian & Russian stance could be based on the concept that according to the proportionality principle, threatened & applied force is not against UN principle, but rather, furthers the aims of the UN in such extreme cases of ethnic cleansing & takes precedence over territorial sovereignty. Should such a stance be discounted, the intervention can still be justified on the basis that Yugoslavia initiated the aggression, though against its own people, the intervention was an emergency measure, or that reprisal was required for such a severe violation of international law. L. Kehl

Der Autor untersucht die Eliminierung der politischen, wirtschaftlichen, wissenschaftlichen und geistig-kulturellen Eliten während des Krieges in Bosnien und Herzegowina und ihre Folgen für die Friedenskonsolidierung nach dessen Ende. Die Fallstudie befasst sich mit den Verbrechen im Zeitraum von 1992 bis 1995 anhand von Zeugenaussagen, Dokumenten und anderen Quellen, wie z. B. dem Internationalen Straftribunal für das ehemalige Jugoslawien und dem Institut für Kriegsverbrechen in Sarajevo. Ziel der Arbeit ist es, Elitozid als ein bisher wenig erforschtes Phänomen im Rahmen der Kriegsstrategie der ethnischen Homogenisierung ("ethnic cleansing") zu untersuchen und als soziologisch-strafrechtlichen Begriff wissenschaftlich herauszuarbeiten

Seit 1988 befindet sich das Königreich Bhutan in einem Zustand des politischen Aufruhrs. Als unmittelbares Ergebnis der Konfrontation zwischen den Kräften der absoluten Monarchie und den Kräften der Demokratie sind mehr als 100.000 Einwohner gezwungen worden, in die Nachbarländer Nepal und Indien zu fliehen. Die Entstehung des Flüchtlingsproblems, die undemokratische Bhutanesische Regierungsform, Menschenrechtsverletzungen, Verfolgung von Oppositionellen u.a. werden behandelt. - Die Dokumentation beruht auf einer Publikation "Bhutan: ethnic cleansing in the Himalayas", die im Januar 1994 vom "Peoples Forum for Human Rights, Bhutan" herausgegeben wurde. (DÜI-Alb)