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The use of criminal sanctions to punish or deter violations of environmental law is debated. Arguments favoring the criminalization of such laws point to their deterrent capacity & reflect the desire of some to exact moral retribution on offenders. Arguments against penalties & punishments focus on potential for overkill, procedural complexity, & high implementation costs. In weighing these arguments, a balance must be struck in evaluating the legal & organizational advantages/disadvantages against alternative measures for gaining compliance. These include publicizing the polluter's activities, economic incentives, civil sanction, equity fines, the pass-through fine, educational strategies, internal restructuring, cooperative lawmaking, external investigations, & community service orders. Adapted from the source document.

In recent years, policymakers in the United States and worldwide have paid great attention to the criminal sanction as a tool for reaching environmental objectives. This article offers several arguments for the application of this penalty to behaviors that degrade the natural environment. Some are based on its deterrent capacity; some are less practical, focusing on a moral imperative to punish those who threaten human health or destroy natural resources. But arguments against criminalizing environmental law are also numerous. They emphasize its high costs, procedural complexity, and potential overkill effects. Decisions about the appropriate applicability of criminal sanctions need to be based on an evaluation of their actual legal and organizational advantages and disadvantages and a knowledge of other promising ideas to foster compliance. Such ideas range from subsidizing the polluter to publicizing his or her good or ill deeds.

Proposes an interpretation of intercultural processes that take place in the exchange of traditional knowledge between ethnic groups and different kinds of agents in modern societies. Guidelines for a regulatory framework protecting vernacular knowledge and simultaneously providing incentives for modern scientific research are suggested. Under this scheme, communities might improve their ability to defend their rights and demand the enforcement of certain rules conditioning the use of traditional knowledge by firms, laboratories, and research institutes. (Original abstract - amended)

Police selection can be broadened in many jurisdictions, moving beyond traditional reliance on cognitive skills testing, but managers should be aware of dilemmas this process may entail. Jurisdictions differ from one another and trade-offs often need to made between competing values; therefore, there is no "one best way" to select law enforcement personnel. However, in light of several jurisdictions' problematic experiences, managers should take care not to place undue emphasis on any single knowledge, skill, and ability (KSA) or demographic consideration. Also, personality measures have limitations and may never fully replace cognitive tests.

Knowledge accumulated for centuries by ethnic communities about their habitat is increasingly being used for commercial purposes in fields such as pharmacy & agriculture. Transnational corporations & research laboratories use knowledge obtained from the analysis of plants & other biological samples provided by ethnic communities, or from the observation of their traditional practices. This paper proposes an interpretation of intercultural processes that take place in the exchange of traditional knowledge between ethnic groups & different kinds of agents in modern societies. The exchange between indigenous communities that possess the knowledge & researchers from universities & transnational corporations willing to develop & exploit that knowledge is marked by a deep information asymmetry. Guidelines for a regulatory framework protecting vernacular knowledge & simultaneously providing incentives for modern scientific research are suggested. Under this scheme, communities might improve their ability to defend their rights & demand the enforcement of certain rules conditioning the use of traditional knowledge by firms, laboratories, & research institutes. At the same time, investment for research in this field would be stimulated. 33 References. Adapted from the source document.

The unpopularity of the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 grew in light of the recession, recent international events, and continuing record budget deficits. This prompted many Congress members and congressional committees to consider the future of the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990. Two hearings, held in October and November of 1991, exemplify the kinds of choices facing the Congress and the type of advice that Congress has been receiving. This article reviews the testimony given at the hearings by experts with established knowledge of federal budgeting.

A ZLRev article on gender and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in Zimbabwe. ; Environmental education is essential for promoting sustainable development practices and strategies. Potentially, it may affect the choices various stakeholders, policy makers and managers make that affect the environment. Further, it is important for enforcement of the law in that it could affect the decisions the police make about prosecuting and their efficiency. Similarly, the perspective of the court affects how they interpret the law and their sentencing practice.* 1 Sound policy, programme formulation processes, planning and managerial practice that are able to address the social, economic and environmental objectives of sustainable development are essential. It is important for environmental education initiatives to challenge views currently held by policy makers, planners and enforcement agencies as well as to complement their knowledge base so as to promote better planning and management. Both Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and gender are sorely neglected factors in decision making and policy formulation. This may be attributed to many factors including Zimbabwe's political history, existing gender relations, the institutional framework and the planning and managerial framework. This paper examines the significance of gender and IKS in the creation of such strategies. It seeks to locate rural women in the development scenario and to specifically identify their interests and values. Thus, it explores the relationship of rural women to knowledge systems and defines them as critical stakeholders.

This study is based on in-depth interviews with 23 police reporters and 30 law enforcement officials located in the cities and counties of Tennessee's 11 major newspapers. The study finds that reporters are far younger than their source counterparts and less likely to have much experience or come from the local community. Law enforcement officials complain: Reporters are passing through the beat toward greater glory. Reporters, hardpressed to meet deadlines, often have to rely on the telephone, and find it difficult to deal, on occasion, with the bureaucracy. In evaluating such areas as "honesty," "fairness," "knowledge," and "effectiveness," law enforcement officials evaluated reporters slightly higher than the reverse evaluation. Police complain about "training" young reporters over and over.

Aim: To study the practices of private pharmacies, the quality of drugs and the effectiveness of government regulations. To explore drug sellers' and consumers' knowledge and perceptions about drug quality. Methods: All 214 licensed private pharmacies and 14 public pharmacies (only analysed in study 111) in the 14 districts of the Savannakhet province constitute the study population. The study design was a randomised trial (II), pre-experimental (IV) and cross sectional study (1, 111, V). Both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied using structured interviews with drug sellers, exit interviews with customers, inspections of drug purchases, sampling and analysis of four essential drugs, and focus group discussions with drug sellers and community members. The measurement of quality of pharmacy services was based on the concept of Good Pharmacy Practice (GPP) using different types of indicators. The applied regulatory intervention package (11) was part of the quality assurance of the National Drug Policy Programme (NDPP) with inspections, information, distribution of regulation documents to drug sellers and sanctions. Two different intervention levels with "higher intensity" in the "active" districts and "lower intensity" in the "regular" districts were used to test the effectiveness of government regulations on pharmacy services. Main findings: Most private pharmacies were managed by non-pharmacists. The quality of practices was low, with 59% of the encounters not receiving any information on drug use, 47% of purchased drugs had no label and 26% of all drugs were mixed in the same package. Forty-six percent of drug samples from the baseline study were substandard largely due to poor manufacturing practice. After 11/2 years of regulatory intervention, the pharmacies in the active intervention districts showed statistically significant improvements for order, essential material and information indicators. When compared the differences of the means of these indicators from pre- to post- intervention, between the active and the regular intervention districts only essential material indicator differed statistically significant. There was no significant difference between the public and private pharmacies in relation to order, information and labelling. Essential drugs and essential materials were significantly more available in private than in public pharmacies. More antibiotics and injections were dispensed in public pharmacies. The number of substandard drug samples in private pharmacies was reduced significantly from 46% in 1997 to 22% in 1999 (p<0.001), yet the numbers remain high. There was inadequate scientific drug knowledge among drug sellers and only a few consumers were aware of the existence of low quality drugs. The majority trust the drug companies and authorities to provide them with good quality drugs. Most sellers did not know what constitutes a good quality drug or of correct storage conditions. Conclusions and recommendations: The quality of private pharmacies was low including the dispensing of substandard drugs in high proportions. It was possible to improve the practice of private pharmacies including the provision of better quality drugs through regulatory interventions. The limited knowledge and awareness of drug sellers and consumers about drug quality may contribute to the low quality of drugs and services. Further interventions are needed.

As we near the twenty-fifth anniversary of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, an assessment of equal employment opportunity law is both natural and appropriate. Prior to 1964, the federal government had imposed equal employment opportunity obligations on itself as well as its contractors and subcontractors. And Title VII of the Act,which mandated such obligations, did not become effective until July 2,1965. Yet the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which was the first comprehensive legislation to address the problems of discrimination in American society, became the cornerstone of modern civil rights law, including equal employment opportunity law.The leaders in the struggle to adopt the Civil Rights Act have largely passed from the public scene, and a new generation has reached adulthood with little knowledge of the conditions that called for its adoption. The time is ripe for review.

In an attempt to reap the purported benefits that "knowledge workers" bring to organizations, many police departments have shifted to a community problem–oriented policing philosophy. Rather than focusing on enforcement and incarceration, this philosophy is based on the dissemination of information to promote a proactive, preventative approach to reduce crime and disorder. In keeping with much of the contemporary literature on the "learning organization" (sometimes called the "knowledge organization"), police departments hope to deter crime through the knowledge benefits that derive from information and its associated technologies. With goals to stimulate productivity, performance, and effectiveness, police departments across the country are employing information technology to turn police officers into problem solvers and to leverage their intellectual capital to preempt crime and neighborhood deterioration.Many public and private organizations are striving to change their operations toward this same concept of the knowledge worker. Information technology is often touted as a vehicle for capturing, tracking, sorting, and providing information to advance knowledge, thus leading to improvements in service–delivery efforts. Based on an extensive study of police departments that have attempted to implement a knowledge–worker paradigm (supported by information technology initiatives), this research explores the feasibility, effectiveness, and limitations of information and technology in promoting the learning organization in the public sector.

The influence of tax preparers on tax compliance is assessed, using 1982 data from the Internal Revenue Service's (IRS) Taxpayer Compliance Measurement Program & an index of legal ambiguity based on revenue rulings, focusing on the impact of preparation mode (paid third party vs self) on compliance at the level of the return line item. Results suggest that preparers contribute to compliance by enforcing legally clear requirements but also contribute to noncompliance, as measured by the IRS, by helping taxpayers take advantage of legal ambiguity. Furthermore, an analysis of a campaign to enforce estimated tax requirements conducted by the Pennsylvania Dept of Revenue suggests that tax preparers are also an important network for communicating tax agency enforcement priorities to taxpayers. 7 Tables. HA

Focus on the use of a formula to determine amount of child support, and the establishment of a special enforcement agency.