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Understanding of this demographic requires knowledge of history. ; International audience ; Understanding of this demographic requires knowledge of history. ; http://www.population-demographie.org/revue.htm ; Understanding of this demographic requires knowledge of history. ; La compréhension du présent démographique suppose la connaissance de l'histoire.

In history, the idea of uncertainty has taken on many forms, both in the methodological field, with for example the definition of historical sources as traces, and in epistemological terms, with the major question of causality or even ontological with the infinite extension of the "historian's territory". Nevertheless, more than an operative notion perhaps, it has long remained as an invariant, a kind of epistemological madguard (a "residue" according to the term adopted by Marc Bloch) of historical knowledge. The question of the historicization of the idea of uncertainty in the historical discipline is related to the place assigned to it in the epistemology of historians, always in tension with the desire for scientificity and truth that has long structured the disciplinarization and professionalization of history. Where do we place the cursor between uncertainty and truth for historical knowledge? This could be the guiding question to periodize the place of the idea of uncertainty in history and roughly distinguish after a predominantly scientist phase linked to the professionalization of the historical discipline (19th-first 20th century), a phase of doubts about history's ability to tell the truth, which became clear at the end of the 1970s and could conveniently be characterized as the great reversal of uncertainty in history, which, from an embarrassing limitation to reducing as much as possible, became an operating principle for defatalising history. However, it will be necessary to question this periodization, more or less modelled on the general evolutions of the sciences, marked in particular by the rise in power of probabilistic and indeterministic approaches and more or less directly related to what is perceived by the majority as the rise of uncertainty in the historical world itself ; this will require taking into account another level of analysis that adds to the weight of uncertainty in history, the moral and political dimension around the question of the social function of history.

The current historiography is marked by the return of exhibition biographies, the denunciation of explanatory determinisms or the militant refusal of the method; it seems time for the militant statement of the creative subjectivity of historian and the relativism of knowledge. However, this contribution is intended to show that the processing of political discourse benefits from being subjected to controlled and systematised analyses, using IT and statistics, in order to make the reading and interpretation of texts more objective. ; International audience ; The current historiography is marked by the return of exhibition biographies, the denunciation of explanatory determinisms or the militant refusal of the method; it seems time for the militant statement of the creative subjectivity of historian and the relativism of knowledge. However, this contribution is intended to show that the processing of political discourse benefits from being subjected to controlled and systematised analyses, using IT and statistics, in order to make the reading and interpretation of texts more objective. ; L'historiographie actuelle est marquée par le retour des biographies de salon, par la dénonciation des déterminismes explicatifs ou encore par le refus militant de la méthode ; l'heure semble à l'affirmation militante de la subjectivité créatrice de l'historien et du relativisme de la connaissance. Cette contribution entend pourtant montrer que le traitement des discours politiques gagne à se soumettre à des analyses contrôlées et systématisées, ici grâce à l'informatique et la statistique, afin de mieux objectiver les parcours de lecture et l'interprétation des textes.

Scientific methodology alone is not enough to capture the evolution of psychiatric knowledge which is the last specialty to be affected by Evidence Based Medicine. Practice and discourse seem to be determined by externals factors to scientific logic; ideology, politics, interpersonal relationships influence the evolution of the specialty. We will try to defend this hypothesis through the history of Russian psychiatry.We will discuss the evolution of Russian psychiatry, from the origins to the end of the Empire. Madness is then a matter of spirits before becoming a legislative and medical issue. We will then study the place of psychiatry in the new Bolshevik regime, and its role in founding the New Man. We will show the Communist Party's influence on psychiatry from the 1930s to the 1950s which established pavlovism as a mandatory paradigm. During the Cold War, psychiatry moved away from this model, but remained highly politicized and ideologized. We will also introduce the Russian psychoanalysis history which was first authorized then quickly rejected, considered as bourgeois. We will present the punitive psychiatric use by the authorities from 1960 to 1990; indeed several hundred dissidents were sent to psychiatric hospitals "to be cured".Eventually, we will report on the reactions of world psychiatry to this drift, leading to Soviet exclusion from the World Psychiatric Association. Such a history is also of heuristic interest; the temptation to instrumentalize psychiatry remains consubstantial to the exercise of power, including in the so-called advanced liberal democracies. ; Seule, la méthodologie scientifique ne saurait suffire à saisir l'évolution du savoir psychiatrique, dernière spécialité à être touchée par l'Evidence Based Medicine. Pratique et discours semblent être déterminés par des facteurs externes à la logique scientifique ; idéologie, politique, relations interpersonnelles viennent influer l'évolution de la spécialité. Par l'histoire de la psychiatrie russe nous essayerons de défendre cette hypothèse.Nous évoquerons les débuts de la psychiatrie russe, des origines à la fin de l'empire. La folie est alors histoire d'esprits avant de devenir question législative, puis médicale. Nous étudierons ensuite la place de la psychiatrie dans le nouveau régime bolchevik, aidant à fonder l'Homme nouveau. Puis nous montrerons l'influence du Parti communiste sur la pensée psychiatrique des années 1930-1950, imposant le pavlovisme comme paradigme obligatoire. Lors de la Guerre froide, la psychiatrie s'éloigne de ce modèle, mais reste fortement politisée et idéologisée. Nous rapporterons aussi l'histoire de la psychanalyse russe ; d'abord autorisée, elle est rapidement rejetée, considérée comme bourgeoise. Nous présenterons l'histoire de l'utilisation psychiatrique punitive par les autorités de 1960 à 1990 : plusieurs centaines de dissidents sont envoyés en hôpital psychiatrique pour être « soignés ». Enfin, nous rapporterons les réactions de la psychiatrie mondiale face à cette dérive, entraînant l'exclusion soviétique de l'Association mondiale de psychiatrie. Une telle histoire revêt également un intérêt heuristique ; la tentation d'instrumentaliser la psychiatrie reste consubstantielle à l'exercice du pouvoir, y compris dans les démocraties libérales dites avancées.

Scientific methodology alone is not enough to capture the evolution of psychiatric knowledge which is the last specialty to be affected by Evidence Based Medicine. Practice and discourse seem to be determined by externals factors to scientific logic; ideology, politics, interpersonal relationships influence the evolution of the specialty. We will try to defend this hypothesis through the history of Russian psychiatry.We will discuss the evolution of Russian psychiatry, from the origins to the end of the Empire. Madness is then a matter of spirits before becoming a legislative and medical issue. We will then study the place of psychiatry in the new Bolshevik regime, and its role in founding the New Man. We will show the Communist Party's influence on psychiatry from the 1930s to the 1950s which established pavlovism as a mandatory paradigm. During the Cold War, psychiatry moved away from this model, but remained highly politicized and ideologized. We will also introduce the Russian psychoanalysis history which was first authorized then quickly rejected, considered as bourgeois. We will present the punitive psychiatric use by the authorities from 1960 to 1990; indeed several hundred dissidents were sent to psychiatric hospitals "to be cured".Eventually, we will report on the reactions of world psychiatry to this drift, leading to Soviet exclusion from the World Psychiatric Association. Such a history is also of heuristic interest; the temptation to instrumentalize psychiatry remains consubstantial to the exercise of power, including in the so-called advanced liberal democracies. ; Seule, la méthodologie scientifique ne saurait suffire à saisir l'évolution du savoir psychiatrique, dernière spécialité à être touchée par l'Evidence Based Medicine. Pratique et discours semblent être déterminés par des facteurs externes à la logique scientifique ; idéologie, politique, relations interpersonnelles viennent influer l'évolution de la spécialité. Par l'histoire de la psychiatrie russe nous essayerons de défendre cette hypothèse.Nous évoquerons les débuts de la psychiatrie russe, des origines à la fin de l'empire. La folie est alors histoire d'esprits avant de devenir question législative, puis médicale. Nous étudierons ensuite la place de la psychiatrie dans le nouveau régime bolchevik, aidant à fonder l'Homme nouveau. Puis nous montrerons l'influence du Parti communiste sur la pensée psychiatrique des années 1930-1950, imposant le pavlovisme comme paradigme obligatoire. Lors de la Guerre froide, la psychiatrie s'éloigne de ce modèle, mais reste fortement politisée et idéologisée. Nous rapporterons aussi l'histoire de la psychanalyse russe ; d'abord autorisée, elle est rapidement rejetée, considérée comme bourgeoise. Nous présenterons l'histoire de l'utilisation psychiatrique punitive par les autorités de 1960 à 1990 : plusieurs centaines de dissidents sont envoyés en hôpital psychiatrique pour être « soignés ». Enfin, nous rapporterons les réactions de la psychiatrie mondiale face à cette dérive, entraînant l'exclusion soviétique de l'Association mondiale de psychiatrie. Une telle histoire revêt également un intérêt heuristique ; la tentation d'instrumentaliser la psychiatrie reste consubstantielle à l'exercice du pouvoir, y compris dans les démocraties libérales dites avancées.

The constituent act of contemporary cultural history was a blurring with the epistemological and methodological presuppositions of economic and social history. The new field of historiography, breaking with 'historical tradition', was based on the new 'materialism' and the theory of representation. An alarming and alarming issue is needed: to what extent are the conceptualisations and methodologies of contemporary history only new costumes for old history commitments? Does new materialism not disguise historians' old practice of gathering 'facts'? Does the representation theory not disguise the idea of mentalities? If the answer is affirmative, a new question should be asked: Are the great struggles in history not forgotten strategies that try to erase the memory of recent historiography and its cognitive effects? ; L'acte constitutif de l'histoire culturelle contemporaine était la coupure avec les presuppositions épistémologiques et méthodologiques de l'histoire économique et sociale. Le champ nouveau de l'historiographie, rompant avec »la tradition historiographique«, s'est fondé sur le nouveau »matérialisme« et sur la théorie de la réprésentation. Une question inquiétante cepandant s'impose: dans quelle mesure les conceptualisations et les méthodologies de l'histoire contemporaine ne sont que costumes nouveaux pour vieux engagements de l'histoire? Le matérialisme nouveau ne déguise-t-il pas la vieille pratique des historiens de rassembler des »faits«? La théorie de la réprésentation ne déguise-t-elle pas l'idée des méntalités? Si la réponse est affirmatif, il faut poser une nouvelle question: Les grandes luttes dans le champ de l'histoire ne sont-elles pas des stratégies d'oubli qui essaient d'effacer la mémoire de l'historiographie recente et de ses effets cognitifs?

International audience ; Between the early years of the seventeenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, Paris, though not a sea port, gained more importance with regard to the organization and management of the French colonial space, thus relegating French Atlantic ports to a operational peripheries, largely dependent on the capital of the kingdom. Merchants in port towns, private ship owners and sailors, in the wake of sixteenth century practices, remained decisive agents of colonial development overseas, but the places of power and knowledge - two key factors in the colonial project - took root in Paris. From the 1750s, at a time when a number of French colonies which proved long-lived were established overseas, Parisian cartographers and certain learned circles in the capital tended to play a significant role in gathering, analyzing and spreading information coming from those new territories; but it was under Colbert's impulse, in the following decades, that prestigious Paris learned institutions were developed by the monarchy and tightly linked to government institutions (Jardin du roi, Académie royale des sciences, Observatoire royal, etc.) thus contributing to make Paris— then and for a long time— the real cultural and learned capital of the French colonial enterprise. ; Entre le début du XVIIe et la fin du XVIIIe siècle,Paris,ville sans port maritime,prend une place de premier plan dans l'organisation et la gestion de l'espace colonial français,repoussant les ports atlantiques au rang de périphéries opérationnelles,assez largement subordonnées à la capitale du royaume: si les négociants des villes portuaires, les armateurs privés et les marins restent, dans le sillage du XVIe siècle,des acteurs essentiels de l'expansion française outre-mer,les lieux de pouvoir et de savoir, éléments clés du projet colonial,s'ancrent à Paris. Dès le milieu du XVIIe siècle,au moment où s'implantent outre-mer un certain nombre de colonies françaises appelées à durer,les cartographes parisiens et certains cercles ...

International audience ; Between the early years of the seventeenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, Paris, though not a sea port, gained more importance with regard to the organization and management of the French colonial space, thus relegating French Atlantic ports to a operational peripheries, largely dependent on the capital of the kingdom. Merchants in port towns, private ship owners and sailors, in the wake of sixteenth century practices, remained decisive agents of colonial development overseas, but the places of power and knowledge - two key factors in the colonial project - took root in Paris. From the 1750s, at a time when a number of French colonies which proved long-lived were established overseas, Parisian cartographers and certain learned circles in the capital tended to play a significant role in gathering, analyzing and spreading information coming from those new territories; but it was under Colbert's impulse, in the following decades, that prestigious Paris learned institutions were developed by the monarchy and tightly linked to government institutions (Jardin du roi, Académie royale des sciences, Observatoire royal, etc.) thus contributing to make Paris— then and for a long time— the real cultural and learned capital of the French colonial enterprise. ; Entre le début du XVIIe et la fin du XVIIIe siècle,Paris,ville sans port maritime,prend une place de premier plan dans l'organisation et la gestion de l'espace colonial français,repoussant les ports atlantiques au rang de périphéries opérationnelles,assez largement subordonnées à la capitale du royaume: si les négociants des villes portuaires, les armateurs privés et les marins restent, dans le sillage du XVIe siècle,des acteurs essentiels de l'expansion française outre-mer,les lieux de pouvoir et de savoir, éléments clés du projet colonial,s'ancrent à Paris. Dès le milieu du XVIIe siècle,au moment où s'implantent outre-mer un certain nombre de colonies françaises appelées à durer,les cartographes parisiens et certains cercles ...

International audience ; Between the early years of the seventeenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, Paris, though not a sea port, gained more importance with regard to the organization and management of the French colonial space, thus relegating French Atlantic ports to a operational peripheries, largely dependent on the capital of the kingdom. Merchants in port towns, private ship owners and sailors, in the wake of sixteenth century practices, remained decisive agents of colonial development overseas, but the places of power and knowledge - two key factors in the colonial project - took root in Paris. From the 1750s, at a time when a number of French colonies which proved long-lived were established overseas, Parisian cartographers and certain learned circles in the capital tended to play a significant role in gathering, analyzing and spreading information coming from those new territories; but it was under Colbert's impulse, in the following decades, that prestigious Paris learned institutions were developed by the monarchy and tightly linked to government institutions (Jardin du roi, Académie royale des sciences, Observatoire royal, etc.) thus contributing to make Paris— then and for a long time— the real cultural and learned capital of the French colonial enterprise. ; Entre le début du XVIIe et la fin du XVIIIe siècle,Paris,ville sans port maritime,prend une place de premier plan dans l'organisation et la gestion de l'espace colonial français,repoussant les ports atlantiques au rang de périphéries opérationnelles,assez largement subordonnées à la capitale du royaume: si les négociants des villes portuaires, les armateurs privés et les marins restent, dans le sillage du XVIe siècle,des acteurs essentiels de l'expansion française outre-mer,les lieux de pouvoir et de savoir, éléments clés du projet colonial,s'ancrent à Paris. Dès le milieu du XVIIe siècle,au moment où s'implantent outre-mer un certain nombre de colonies françaises appelées à durer,les cartographes parisiens et certains cercles savants de la capitale jouent un rôle croissant dans la centralisation, l'étude et la diffusion d'informations venues de ces nouveaux territoires;mais c'est avec l'impulsion de Colbert,dans les décennies qui suivent,que des institutions savantes parisiennes prestigieuses développées par la monarchie et fortement articulées sur les institutions de gouvernement (Jardin du roi,Académie royale des sciences, Observatoire royal,etc.) contribuent à faire de Paris,et pour longtemps,la véritable capitale culturelle et savante de l'entreprise coloniale française.

International audience ; Between the early years of the seventeenth century and the end of the eighteenth century, Paris, though not a sea port, gained more importance with regard to the organization and management of the French colonial space, thus relegating French Atlantic ports to a operational peripheries, largely dependent on the capital of the kingdom. Merchants in port towns, private ship owners and sailors, in the wake of sixteenth century practices, remained decisive agents of colonial development overseas, but the places of power and knowledge - two key factors in the colonial project - took root in Paris. From the 1750s, at a time when a number of French colonies which proved long-lived were established overseas, Parisian cartographers and certain learned circles in the capital tended to play a significant role in gathering, analyzing and spreading information coming from those new territories; but it was under Colbert's impulse, in the following decades, that prestigious Paris learned institutions were developed by the monarchy and tightly linked to government institutions (Jardin du roi, Académie royale des sciences, Observatoire royal, etc.) thus contributing to make Paris— then and for a long time— the real cultural and learned capital of the French colonial enterprise. ; Entre le début du XVIIe et la fin du XVIIIe siècle,Paris,ville sans port maritime,prend une place de premier plan dans l'organisation et la gestion de l'espace colonial français,repoussant les ports atlantiques au rang de périphéries opérationnelles,assez largement subordonnées à la capitale du royaume: si les négociants des villes portuaires, les armateurs privés et les marins restent, dans le sillage du XVIe siècle,des acteurs essentiels de l'expansion française outre-mer,les lieux de pouvoir et de savoir, éléments clés du projet colonial,s'ancrent à Paris. Dès le milieu du XVIIe siècle,au moment où s'implantent outre-mer un certain nombre de colonies françaises appelées à durer,les cartographes parisiens et certains cercles savants de la capitale jouent un rôle croissant dans la centralisation, l'étude et la diffusion d'informations venues de ces nouveaux territoires;mais c'est avec l'impulsion de Colbert,dans les décennies qui suivent,que des institutions savantes parisiennes prestigieuses développées par la monarchie et fortement articulées sur les institutions de gouvernement (Jardin du roi,Académie royale des sciences, Observatoire royal,etc.) contribuent à faire de Paris,et pour longtemps,la véritable capitale culturelle et savante de l'entreprise coloniale française.

the patients claimed their rights in society throughout the end of the twentieth century. Health democracy is being supported by a range of laws that allow the rights, voice and views of users and their relatives to be expressed. The expression of knowledge specific to patients is understood as a corollary in the health system and in society. Broadly speaking, it can be seen from different angles: the knowledge developed by patients' caregivers in patient education consultations (FTE), on the one hand, and the recognised knowledge of experience of the disease in informal and non-formal places (intimate, group, societal) on the other. The purpose of this article is to question this emerging recognition of patients' knowledge in the light of the scientific knowledge developed in practices usually described as amateur, for example in biology or astronomy. What are the similarities and differences between the knowledge and skills acquired during disease experience in specific practices carried out by patients and their relatives with those of amateurs? After presenting the practices of patients and their relatives where the production of new knowledge is undertaken, this article examines the points of convergence and divergence with the knowledge of amateur people. Secondly, it proposes tools to analyse the question of the scientific validity of such knowledge. ; Les malades ont fait valoir leurs droits dans la société tout au long de la fin du vingtième siècle. La démocratie sanitaire est en marche soutenue par un arsenal de lois qui permettent l'expression des droits, de la parole et du point de vue des usagers et de leurs proches. L'expression d'un savoir spécifique aux malades se fait entendre de façon corollaire dans le système de santé et la société. Schématiquement, elle peut être regardée sous différents angles : les savoirs développés par les soignants auprès des malades dans des consultations d'éducation thérapeutique du patient (ETP), d'une part et les savoirs reconnus issus de l'expérience de la maladie ...

This research aims to underline clinical facts in psychiatric hospitals with subjects suffering from schizophrenia. We have tried to demonstrate the hypothesis whereby it is possible to talk about the schizophrenic's knowledge even though the examples given were subjects facing without any protection the impact of the jouissance on their body and language. Therefore, we were interested in how schizophrenia as a concept would be throughout history in psychiatric theories and clinical practices. As schizophrenia is a vague field, it led us to think that it didn't exist. However, we have learned that patients seem to be in a gap of medical classification. Throughout psychoanalysis and Freud's and Lacan's teaching, we have made an ethical, strategic and political choice. In fact, they have theorize the function of the subject by proposing a method which treats what's not curable and what's beyond common meaning. Henceforth, the schizophrenic's knowledge concerns the status of human being as a speaking body. Far from being lacking, it is exceeding. In order to limit the jouissance for a subject which doesn't have the signifying articulation, we have learned that we have at our disposal the semblance which combines imaginary and symbolic. Then, we have explored the affect field which includes anxiety and love. Anxiety enables the subject to have access to the semblance, than love as the bond between speakers allows it to incorporate real. The last chapter discusses the way schizophrenia by it's relevance to the outside meaning, can help the clinician to see how today's society experiences the drive. ; Cette recherche vise à rendre compte de la clinique, en institution de santé mentale, auprès de sujets dits schizophrènes. Nous avons cherché à démontrer l'hypothèse selon laquelle il est légitime de parler du savoir du schizophrène, alors même que les cas présentés concernent des personnes confrontées, sans voile, à l'incidence de la jouissance sur le corps et dans le langage. Pour cela, nous nous sommes d'abord ...

This research aims to underline clinical facts in psychiatric hospitals with subjects suffering from schizophrenia. We have tried to demonstrate the hypothesis whereby it is possible to talk about the schizophrenic's knowledge even though the examples given were subjects facing without any protection the impact of the jouissance on their body and language. Therefore, we were interested in how schizophrenia as a concept would be throughout history in psychiatric theories and clinical practices. As schizophrenia is a vague field, it led us to think that it didn't exist. However, we have learned that patients seem to be in a gap of medical classification. Throughout psychoanalysis and Freud's and Lacan's teaching, we have made an ethical, strategic and political choice. In fact, they have theorize the function of the subject by proposing a method which treats what's not curable and what's beyond common meaning. Henceforth, the schizophrenic's knowledge concerns the status of human being as a speaking body. Far from being lacking, it is exceeding. In order to limit the jouissance for a subject which doesn't have the signifying articulation, we have learned that we have at our disposal the semblance which combines imaginary and symbolic. Then, we have explored the affect field which includes anxiety and love. Anxiety enables the subject to have access to the semblance, than love as the bond between speakers allows it to incorporate real. The last chapter discusses the way schizophrenia by it's relevance to the outside meaning, can help the clinician to see how today's society experiences the drive. ; Cette recherche vise à rendre compte de la clinique, en institution de santé mentale, auprès de sujets dits schizophrènes. Nous avons cherché à démontrer l'hypothèse selon laquelle il est légitime de parler du savoir du schizophrène, alors même que les cas présentés concernent des personnes confrontées, sans voile, à l'incidence de la jouissance sur le corps et dans le langage. Pour cela, nous nous sommes d'abord ...