Suchergebnisse

The Ph.D. project aimed to analyze the right to privacy in light of the recent restrictions and derogations put in place in international and European law, particularly in response to the terrorist attacks that occurred on 11th September, 2001. In this context, tensions peaked in 2013 when former NSA employee, Edward Snowden, denounced mass surveillance programs put in place by the American government. These programs, made also possible by the collaboration of the most important American internet service providers, aimed to monitor American citizens and not. Undeniably, in 2013 the international community gained greater awareness of the potential risks connected to the indiscriminate collection of personal information by the National Security and law enforcement authorities. In fact, there are still many States that consider mass surveillance an effective tool in protecting national security and preventing terrorist attacks. However, these measures simultaneously contain considerable risks for citizens' rights, due to either the frequent lack of adequate jurisdictional control at a national level or the indiscriminate nature of the data collected. Despite the importance of the right to privacy, there is still a lack of adequate legislation in this matter. This is especially evident at the international level. Notably, Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights both fail to explicitly provide for the protection of personal data. Furthermore, there is no mention of this right in article 8 ECHR. The legal deficiencies, mainly caused by the lack of adequate technical knowledge on the matter during the period that these conventions were drafted and ratified, have been partially compensated for by the development in case-law put in place by the European Court of Human Rights, beginning with the Klass and others v. Germany sentence until the more recent Big Brother Watch and others v. United Kingdom. In particular, according to the judges of Strasbourg, any limitation must be provided for by law, pursuing a legitimate aim, is necessary in a democratic society and respectful of the principle of proportionality. From a legislative point of view, the situation seems to be consistently more favorable in the European context where the right to privacy has become a fundamental right, according to Article 8 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union and Article 16 TFEU. In the final part of the project have been also identified and analyzed other significant unresolved issues in the context of the right to privacy, regarding in particular corporate responsibility for illegitimate transmission of personal data to National Security and law enforcement authorities, which violates international standards protecting human rights, and possible extraterritorial exercise of jurisdiction by monitoring bodies.

This paper explores the normative challenges of digital security technologies i.e., end-to-end (E2E) encryption and metadata analysis, in particular in the context of law enforcement activities. Internet of Things (IoT) devices embedded in smart environments (e.g., smart cities) increasingly rely on E2E encryption in order to safeguard the confidentiality of information and uphold individuals' fundamental rights, such as privacy and data protection. In November 2020, the Council of the EU published a resolution titled "Encryption – Security through encryption and security despite encryption". The resolution seeks to ensure the ability of security and criminal justice authorities to access data in a lawful and targeted manner. Nonetheless, in the context of pre-emptive surveillance and criminal investigations, E2E encryption renders the analysis of the content of communications extremely challenging or practically impossible, even when access to data could be lawful. Here, two different layers of complexity seem to emerge. They concern: (i) whether a balance between the values protected by E2E encryption and the aims of law enforcement can be attained; (ii) whether state-of-the-art AI models can preserve the advantages of E2E encryption, allowing for inferences of valuable information from communication traffic, with the aim of detecting possible threats or illicit content. Against this backdrop, we firstly examine whether AI algorithms, such as Machine Learning and Deep Learning, might be part of the solution, especially when it comes to data-driven and statistical methods for applying classification in encrypted communication traffic so as to infer sensitive information about individuals. Secondly, we consider the possible uses of AI tools in the analysis of IoT-generated data in smart cities scenarios, focusing on metadata analysis. We explore whether that AI-based classification of encrypted traffic can circumscribe the scope of law enforcement monitoring operations, in compliance with the European surveillance case-law. Finally, as far as our research focus is concerned, we discuss how the use of AI bears the potential of smoothing traditional trade-offs between security and fundamental rights, allowing for encrypted traffic analysis without breaking encryption.

The art market is rapidly developing along the ways of globalisation, digitalisation, and democratisation. Yet, it has several characteristics that favour market manipulation, such as lack of transparency and conflicts of interest. Despite substantial advancements, it is acknowledged that sector regulation does not address such limitations properly. In the light of US, EU, and national case-law, this article assesses the role that competition law could play in the art sector, also in conjunction with civil liability. It is found that competition law enforcement in the art market has been scarce so far. It provided for effective reaction tools against few, significant market manipulation strategies carried out by key auction houses. On those occasions, competition authorities and undertakings set shared, basic rules of conduct through commitments. Such cases also seem to have inspired recent self- and heteroregulatory initiatives. All in all, competition law seems to play the residual role of a sentinel in the secondary art market. In contrast, whether or not competition law will be enforced in the authentication service sector mainly depends on how private enforcement will develop in the EU and the US.

Con il decreto legge 24 giugno 2014, n. 90, convertito nella legge n. 114 dello stesso anno, si è operata una significativa svolta nella costruzione di una vera Autorità nazionale anticorruzione in Italia, in attuazione degli obblighi internazionali assunti dal nostro Paese. La nuova Autorità nasce dalla fusione della precedente CIVIT e della soppressa Autorità di vigilanza sui contratti pubblici (AVCP). Il decreto prevede nuovi compiti in capo all'Autorità (in alcuni casi in capo al suo Presidente) e impone una profonda riorganizzazione dei suoi uffici, adeguandosi pienamente alla disciplina

Owing to globalization processes, the nation-state is facing the problem of re-examining its ability to create & maintain order through legislation & law enforcement, as well as its capacity to direct the economy in line with citizens' choices. The use of globalized economic & juridical patterns by private individuals is a great leap forward in economics & personal freedom, considering that the state is continuously loosing its monitoring & checking ability. At the same time, these individuals still live within the framework of the state & also acknowledge its power. Ironically, while trying to sidestep the state, the citizens still look to it to solve their everyday problems. The author investigates the reasons behind the crisis into which a specific model of state -- the Kelsenian & Keynesianan model -- has fallen in recent years. Nevertheless, the crisis of that model does not imply the loss of the possibility of managing the economy & globalization processes. The nation-state remains the most important producer of a great many services & its role in promoting advancements in knowledge & technological innovation is still a central one. One of the most important roles of the nation-state in the global era is that of removing the barriers to the global economy & pursuing the efficiency & innovation of its infrastructures & bureaucratic machinery. In the light of global changes, it is important to rethink the idea that the production of law & institutions can only be legitimated by ballots, or at least that voting always represents the best solution. Other kinds of legitimating processes should instead be considered by contemporary political theory -- for example, considering how people make their political choices like consumers in the free market. Adapted from the source document.

L'interesse finanziario ha assunto un ruolo centrale per l'ordinamento eurounitario e nell'ordinamento eurounitario. Tale affermazione riceve il suo pieno significato dall'analisi delle fonti dell'Unione europea e dall'analisi della giurisprudenza della Corte di Giustizia, ora confermata dall'emanata direttiva PIF del 2017. L'Unione europea e gli Stati membri condividono la tutela dell'interesse finanziario e la conseguente lotta ai fenomeni fraudolenti che ne alterano la consistenza. Ciò si evince già a partire dalla disciplina del bilancio dell'Unione europea; trova conferma in quella del mercato e, infine, nell'analisi sistematica dei principi di neutralità, cooperazione tra amministrazioni, ne bis in in idem e legalità. L'analisi che è stata condotta, infatti, ha sempre tenuto paritariamente in considerazione sia il settore fiscale, sia quello penale, cui la Corte di Giustizia, valorizzandone l'effetto dissuasivo, ha conferito il principale compito di tutela. ; The protection of financial interests plays a fundamental role within the European legal system and for the European legal system. The claim is justified by a thorough analysis of both European sources of law and case-law of the Court of Justice, as recently also confirmed by the 2017 PIF Directive. The EU and the Member States share the burden of the protection of EU's financial interests and the prevention of potentially fraudulent behaviors harming its integrity. The above appears reasonably clear particularly in light of both the budgetary discipline of the European Union and of the single market, as also confirmed by an orderly analysis of the fundamental principles of EU law: tax neutrality; mutual assistance and cooperation between administrations; ne bis in idem and legality. Indeed, the tax and the criminal field have been granted equal consideration throughout the analysis laid down herein, although the latter, due to its prominent deterrent nature, has been regarded by the European Court of Justice as the main instrument for the protection of financial interests.

Nella parte dedicata al rafforzamento della sicurezza, il Programma dell'Aia ha introdotto il principio di disponibilità quale perno della cooperazione informativa e ha parallelamente riconosciuto che la sua implementazione postula un livello adeguato di tutela del diritto fondamentale alla protezione dei dati trattati. Nel presente saggio si dà conto dell'attuazione asimmetrica dei due canoni: da un lato, ci si sofferma su quello che ha portato il legislatore europeo a implementare in modo significativo il canone di disponibilità e che è sfociato nella decisione 2008/615/GAI di recepimento del Trattato di Prüm e nella decisione quadro 2006/960/GAI; dall'altro, si ricostruisce il travagliato iter che ha condotto all'approvazione della tanto attesa, quanto deludente decisione quadro 2008/977/GAI sulla protezione dei dati personali nel "terzo pilastro".