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How does leader age affect international politics? Challenging the existing literature's focus on chronological age, we argue that leaders do not age the same in the eyes of their beholders. Combining insights from gerontology on age-related stereotypes and studies of face-to-face diplomacy, we show that judgments about age informed by high-level personal encounters have profound consequences for how elderly leaders are appraised and treated by their counterparts. A leader who betrays indicators of "senility" during face-to-face encounters will elicit harsh judgments by activating negative stereotypes about aging. Older leaders can also surprise their interlocutors: those long thought to be senile may show themselves as mentally and physically fit. Perceptions of age, in turn, shape how observers understand a leader's agency and shape decisions to "engage" or "bypass" the leader in the context of interstate cooperation. We draw on declassified primary documents to compare American views of three elderly leaders in Cold War Asia—Syngman Rhee, Mao Tse-tung, and Chou Enlai—and how such views informed Washington's approach to these leaders, finding powerful support for our arguments. Our findings suggest new insights for the IR research program on leaders as well as lessons for statecraft in an era of aging decision makers.

Abstract
How does leader age affect international politics? Challenging the existing literature's focus on chronological age, we argue that leaders do not age the same in the eyes of their beholders. Combining insights from gerontology on age-related stereotypes and studies of face-to-face diplomacy, we show that judgments about age informed by high-level personal encounters have profound consequences for how elderly leaders are appraised and treated by their counterparts. A leader who betrays indicators of "senility" during face-to-face encounters will elicit harsh judgments by activating negative stereotypes about aging. Older leaders can also surprise their interlocutors: those long thought to be senile may show themselves as mentally and physically fit. Perceptions of age, in turn, shape how observers understand a leader's agency and shape decisions to "engage" or "bypass" the leader in the context of interstate cooperation. We draw on declassified primary documents to compare American views of three elderly leaders in Cold War Asia—Syngman Rhee, Mao Tse-tung, and Chou Enlai—and how such views informed Washington's approach to these leaders, finding powerful support for our arguments. Our findings suggest new insights for the IR research program on leaders as well as lessons for statecraft in an era of aging decision makers.

In late summer 2013, commentary started to crackle over Syrian President Bashir al-Assad's use of Instagram, a social media tool owned by Facebook, to post pictures of himself and his family. The use of Instagram by a dictator-one waging a civil war and accused of using chemical weapons against civilians-prompted criticism of this old-fashioned propaganda digitized for the cyber age. But, Assad is not alone among authoritarian leaders embracing Instagram: Assad is the latest in what one news site has called 'the dictators of Instagram.' Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov has famously used the social-networking site as a platform to project his very Russian style of masculinity (photo montages of the impossibly barrel-chested despot weight-lifting and posing with wolves and wildcats.) The minions of Ayatollah Khamenei have posted several close-ups of Iran's septuagenarian Supreme Leader on his photo-sharing page. Adapted from the source document.

How do reputations form in international politics? What influence do these reputations have on the conduct of international affairs? In Reputation for Resolve, Danielle L. Lupton takes a new approach to answering these enduring and hotly debated questions by shifting the focus away from the reputations of countries and instead examining the reputations of individual leaders. Lupton argues that new leaders establish personal reputations for resolve that are separate from the reputations of their predecessors and from the reputations of their states. Using innovative survey experiments and in-depth archival research, she finds that leaders acquire personal reputations for resolve based on their foreign policy statements and behavior. Reputation for Resolve shows that statements create expectations of how leaders will react to foreign policy crises in the future and that leaders who fail to meet expectations of resolute action face harsh reputational consequences. Reputation for Resolve challenges the view that reputations do not matter in international politics. In sharp contrast, Lupton shows that the reputations for resolve of individual leaders influence the strategies statesmen pursue during diplomatic interactions and crises, and she delineates specific steps policymakers can take to avoid developing reputations for irresolute action. Lupton demonstrates that reputations for resolve do exist and can influence the conduct of international security. Thus, Reputation for Resolve reframes our understanding of the influence of leaders and their rhetoric on crisis bargaining and the role reputations play in international politics.

In Why Leaders Lie, Mearsheimer provides the first systematic analysis of lying as a tool of statecraft, identifying the varieties, the reasons, and the potential costs and benefits. Drawing on a wealth of examples, he argues that leaders often lie for good strategic reasons, so a blanket condemnation is unrealistic and unwise. Perhaps no distinction is more important than that between lying to another state and lying to one's own people. There has never been a sharp analysis of international lying. Now a leading expert provides a richly informed and powerfully argued work that will change our understanding of why leaders lie.

Einstellung der politischen Führungsschicht (Parlamentsmitglieder) in
Japan zu anderen Nationen und weltpolitischen Problemen.

Themen: Beurteilung des derzeitigen Stands und der zukünftigen
Entwicklung des eigenen Landes; wichtigste Probleme des Landes
und der Welt; wichtigste Aufgaben der Außenpolitik; Beurteilung
des Ost-West-Stärkeverhältnisses und der allgemeinen Kriegsgefahr
Einstellung zu Atomwaffen, zum Rüstungsaufwand und zur
Zuverlässigkeit der NATO und der UNO; Einstellung zu mehr
Neutralität des Landes; Erwartung einer weltpolitischen
Entspannung.

Demographie: Mitgliedschaften; Parteipräferenz.

Einstellung der politischen Führungsschicht (Parlamentsmitglieder)
Italiens zu anderen Nationen und weltpolitischen Problemen.

Themen: Beurteilung des derzeitigen Stands und der zukünftigen
Entwicklung des eigenen Landes; wichtigste Probleme des Landes
und der Welt; wichtigste Aufgaben der Außenpolitik; Beurteilung
des Ost-West-Stärkeverhältnisses und der allgemeinen Kriegsgefahr
Einstellung zu Atomwaffen, zum Rüstungsaufwand und zur
Zuverlässigkeit der NATO und der UNO; Einstellung zu mehr
Neutralität des Landes; Erwartung einer weltpolitischen
Entspannung.

Demographie: Mitgliedschaften; Parteipräferenz.

Einstellung der politischen Führungsschicht (Parlamentsmitglieder)
Indiens zu anderen Nationen und weltpolitischen Problemen.

Themen: Beurteilung des derzeitigen Stands und der zukünftigen
Entwicklung des eigenen Landes; wichtigste Probleme des Landes und der
Welt; wichtigste Aufgaben der Außenpolitik; Beurteilung des
Ost-West-Stärkeverhältnisses und der allgemeinen Kriegsgefahr
Einstellung zu Atomwaffen, zum Rüstungsaufwand und zur Zuverlässigkeit
der NATO und der UNO; Einstellung zu mehr Neutralität des Landes;
Erwartung einer weltpolitischen Entspannung.

Demographie: Mitgliedschaften; Parteipräferenz.

Einstellung der politischen Führungsschicht (Parlamentsmitglieder) in
Frankreich zu anderen Nationen und weltpolitischen Problemen.

Themen: Beurteilung des derzeitigen Stands und der zukünftigen
Entwicklung des eigenen Landes; wichtigste Probleme des Landes und der
Welt; wichtigste Aufgaben der Außenpolitik; Beurteilung des
Ost-West-Stärkeverhältnisses und der allgemeinen Kriegsgefahr
Einstellung zu Atomwaffen, zum Rüstungsaufwand und zur Zuverlässigkeit
der NATO und der UNO; Einstellung zu mehr Neutralität des Landes;
Erwartung einer weltpolitischen Entspannung.

Demographie: Mitgliedschaften; Parteipräferenz.

Einstellung der politischen Führungsschicht (Parlamentsmitglieder) in
der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zu anderen Nationen und weltpolitischen
Problemen.

Themen: Beurteilung des derzeitigen Stands und der zukünftigen
Entwicklung des eigenen Landes; wichtigste Probleme des Landes und der
Welt; wichtigste Aufgaben der Außenpolitik; Beurteilung des
Ost-West-Stärkeverhältnisses und der allgemeinen Kriegsgefahr
Einstellung zu Atomwaffen, zum Rüstungsaufwand und zur Zuverlässigkeit
der NATO und der UNO; Einstellung zu mehr Neutralität des Landes;
Erwartung einer weltpolitischen Entspannung.

Demographie: Mitgliedschaften; Parteipräferenz.