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This thesis addresses several issues: on the one hand, we focus on policies for controlling drug expenditures: on the other hand, we analyze the price competition on the OTC drugs market, in a context of drugs delisting policies.In recent years, some plans to affect change and improve prescribing practices are developed, with the emergence of physician profiling methods. The first chapter wonders about such a profiling in the current information system. Results show that outliers can be correctly identified; but to broaden profiling, we have to use some disease-specific indicators, or to improve information systems with diagnostic codes to define more general indicators.In addition to patient health, various sociological and economic factors may influence physician practices, including the competitive environment. The second chapter focuses on the unequal spatial distribution of general practitioners on drugs prescribing variability. Results are sensitive to the specification used for the medical density variable and suggest there is no effect of the density variation on the average prescribing cost per patient and per physician. However, this result reflects the sum of two opposite effects that cancel.In a context where the sale of OTC drugs outside pharmacies is controversial, the third chapter show there is no price competition between pharmacies on this market segment. ; Cette thèse s'intéresse, d'une part à la question de la maîtrise des dépenses de médicaments, et d'autre part à l'analyse de la concurrence en prix sur le marché des médicaments non remboursables, à la lumière des politiques de déremboursement.Ces dernières années, des actions visant à modifier les pratiques des prescripteurs se développent avec des actions de ciblage des médecins. Le premier chapitre de cette thèse pose ainsi la question de l'identification de ces médecins dans les systèmes d'informations actuels. Les résultats montrent que si les médecins généralistes outliers peuvent être identifiés correctement, il est néanmoins nécessaire, pour élargir le ciblage, de privilégier des indicateurs relevant de pathologies précises ou d'enrichir les systèmes d'informations avec les codes diagnostic pour définir des indicateurs plus généraux.Outre l'état de santé des patients, différents déterminants, sociologiques et économiques, peuvent influencer les pratiques des médecins, dont l'environnement concurrentiel. Le deuxième chapitre s'intéresse à l'effet de l'inégale répartition spatiale des médecins, dans le cas de la prescription de médicaments. Les résultats sont sensibles à la spécification retenue de la variable de densité médicale et invitent à conclure à une absence d'effet de l'évolution de la densité sur la variation des dépenses de prescription. Néanmoins, ce résultat reflète la somme de deux effets contraires qui se compensent.Le troisième chapitre s'inscrit dans un contexte où la question d'ouvrir la vente des médicaments non remboursables en dehors des officines se pose de plus en plus. Les résultats soulignent un manque de concurrence en prix entre officines sur ce segment de marché.

This thesis addresses several issues: on the one hand, we focus on policies for controlling drug expenditures: on the other hand, we analyze the price competition on the OTC drugs market, in a context of drugs delisting policies.In recent years, some plans to affect change and improve prescribing practices are developed, with the emergence of physician profiling methods. The first chapter wonders about such a profiling in the current information system. Results show that outliers can be correctly identified; but to broaden profiling, we have to use some disease-specific indicators, or to improve information systems with diagnostic codes to define more general indicators.In addition to patient health, various sociological and economic factors may influence physician practices, including the competitive environment. The second chapter focuses on the unequal spatial distribution of general practitioners on drugs prescribing variability. Results are sensitive to the specification used for the medical density variable and suggest there is no effect of the density variation on the average prescribing cost per patient and per physician. However, this result reflects the sum of two opposite effects that cancel.In a context where the sale of OTC drugs outside pharmacies is controversial, the third chapter show there is no price competition between pharmacies on this market segment. ; Cette thèse s'intéresse, d'une part à la question de la maîtrise des dépenses de médicaments, et d'autre part à l'analyse de la concurrence en prix sur le marché des médicaments non remboursables, à la lumière des politiques de déremboursement.Ces dernières années, des actions visant à modifier les pratiques des prescripteurs se développent avec des actions de ciblage des médecins. Le premier chapitre de cette thèse pose ainsi la question de l'identification de ces médecins dans les systèmes d'informations actuels. Les résultats montrent que si les médecins généralistes outliers peuvent être identifiés correctement, il est néanmoins ...

The soft budget constraint and economic theory
The budget constraint as a bookkeeping identity is a fundamental concept for standard microeconomics. Clower reinterpreted it as a rational planning postulate. Formulated for the first time by Janos Kornai (1979) in the context of a Communist economy, the soft budget constraint (SBC) is a heresy for standard microeconomics and for Clower, since a budget constraint is hard by definition. However this concept is now being used to analyze post-Communist, emerging, developing and even advanced capitalistic economies. Over the past fifteen years, the SBC, owing to its generality, has motivated attempt to formalize it as a problem of asymmetry in information. This has reduced the SBC to a problem of time inconsistency, i.e. the lack of credible commitment by the Principal. Thus incorporated in the new microeconomics, the SBC has lost its institutional specificity, this loss impoverishing the concept on a theoretical level. We are thus led to reconsider the premises underlying the original concept and to inquire into the theoretical contradictions and tensions that, ever since Kornai's initial formulation, have been running through his works and impeding the emergence of a more coherent institutional theory of the SBC.

Extrait : 'Après avoir établi d'une manière plus ou moins exacte, et par des raisonnements plus ou moins solides, les droit des personnes sur les choses, c'est-à-dire le droit qu'ont les hommes de se servir des biens de la nature, les philosophes ont éprouvé quelqu'embarras à préciser et à déterminer d'une manière rigoureuse quelle pouvait être, dans ce droit général de l'espèce humaine, la part de chaque individu.'

Industrial restructuring and microeconomics adjustment in Poland. A cross sectoral approach.
The paper analyses the impact of the Polish stabilisation programme on the behaviour of state owned firms by summarising and evaluating three case studies of firms. The authors outline a framework to analyse whether firms have adjusted differently according to differences in their market power, financial status, exposure to trade and international comparative advantage. They find no evidence for differences in adjustment from any source ; in all three industries, adjustment has been relatively modest and the governance of firms has hardly changed at all.

This paper tries to show that the first sight differences which allow to establish a distinction between Keynes' and Schumpeter's approaches and were traditionaly described by commentators were overemphasised. The analysis of both authors are indeed rooted in a common perspective. They are related to the originality of the treatment of microeconomic hypothesis, to \the principles which rule the theory of circulation and to the relations between micro and macroeconomic analytical levels. These common points differ drastically from the thesis defended by marginalist and neo-marginalist approaches. They tend to favour the study of macroeconomic constraints-of microeconomics rather than the analysis of microeconomic foundations of macroeconomics.

What is justice in education? How can we evaluate whether given distributions of educational inputs or educational outcomes are just or not? How should a society distribute its educational resources? How canwe evaluate the level of (un)fairness of a schooling system? In this paper, we try to provide a basic framework for thinking about these normative questions in what we consider to be a rigorous way. Inorder to accomplish such task, we interrelate different strands of literature, namely: theories of distributive justice, developed by political philosophers, concepts and tools used in microeconomics (especially inwelfare economics), and insights from positive economics of education. We present, illustrate, and criticize what 'justice in education' is, according to four normative positions – utilitarianism, libertarianism,egalitarianism and egalitarian liberalism.

International audience ; The question of disagreements between economists does not concern here the evolutions of the economic thought which translate the progression of a scientific discipline through the deepening of the concepts, their measurement, the tools of analysis (mathematical and econometric models), the constructions more or less elaborate and sophisticated theoretical which will be studied by historians and epistemologists of economic thought. This is neither the principle of refutability of K. Popper, nor in the sense of Lakatos, that of the paradigmatic evolutions or breaks that are mentioned here, even if the border is often tenuous between scientific disagreements and ideological disagreements. The economy, and in particular the political economy, oscillates constantly between an exact scientific status, especially when it studies the behavior (microeconomics), and a more vague status of the social discipline related to "art", to philosophy, politics, history . The economist himself feels personally and sociologically "engaged" and involved in his analyzes and forecasts of macroeconomic phenomena in particular.The disagreements between the economists referred to here concern, over a given period, one or more current economic issues recognized as such by all economists.

International audience ; The question of disagreements between economists does not concern here the evolutions of the economic thought which translate the progression of a scientific discipline through the deepening of the concepts, their measurement, the tools of analysis (mathematical and econometric models), the constructions more or less elaborate and sophisticated theoretical which will be studied by historians and epistemologists of economic thought. This is neither the principle of refutability of K. Popper, nor in the sense of Lakatos, that of the paradigmatic evolutions or breaks that are mentioned here, even if the border is often tenuous between scientific disagreements and ideological disagreements. The economy, and in particular the political economy, oscillates constantly between an exact scientific status, especially when it studies the behavior (microeconomics), and a more vague status of the social discipline related to "art", to philosophy, politics, history . The economist himself feels personally and sociologically "engaged" and involved in his analyzes and forecasts of macroeconomic phenomena in particular.The disagreements between the economists referred to here concern, over a given period, one or more current economic issues recognized as such by all economists.

The great challenge for neoclassical paradigms is whether its methodological individualism is capable of coming to grips with the collective or social nature of information. Arrow's subtle observation regarding the increasing returns to communication is one of those peculiarities which contradicts the concept of scarcity of information. Bounded rationality is another example. While remaining faithful to methodological individualism of standard economic theory, Arrow describes information as a specific non-ordinary commodity, revealing the limits of imperfections of market and entering into the general category of externalities. He sets forth some fundamental principles of the economics of information and the new microeconomics by focusing on issues such as information gathering, communication efficiency, and transmission costs in deciding among forms of economic organization. In our critical review of Arrow's theory of information, we endeavor to show that despite its great achievements, this theory does not capture the tacit, institutionalized, unexpected, and non-rational dimensions of knowledge. The organizational or corporate culture cannot be derived from market failure. It is the direct outcome of internal organization of the firm and other social networks, and thus closely related to learned and transmitted knowledge in a group context.

Cet article a pour objet d'évaluer empiriquement la pertinence économique (en termes d'efficience-coût) de la politique de délégation de la distribution d'électricité des communes vers des organismes ou sociétés extra-communales. Pour ce faire, les possibilités d'économies d'échelle et de densité au sein du secteur ainsi que les coûts d'exploitation relatifs des diverses formes institutionnelles existantes sont évalués sur base de l'estimation d'une fonction de coût hédonique à court terme. ; Peer reviewed

This paper develops the idea of taking into account the systemic effects of public policies for sustainable transport in long-term scenarios. A comprehensive assessment of these effects is a particularly important factor in identifying potential unbalancing elements and building adaptation strategies to mitigation policies in view of increasing acceptability to different measures on which GHG reductions depend. ; Ce papier développe l'idée de la prise en compte des effets systémiques des politiques publiques de mitigation dans la planification des scénarios de transport soutenable à long terme. La prise en compte de ces effets apparaît comme particulièrement importante afin d'identifier les potentiels éléments de déséquilibre et de construire des stratégies d'adaptation aux politiques de mitigation dans l'objectif d'augmenter l'acceptabilité d'un certain nombre de mesures dont la réduction des gaz à effet de serre dépend.