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This article argues that autonomous militaries can play a balancing role during major internal political crises. However, when militaries' autonomy is curtailed by political leaders before the crisis, militaries cannot maintain the political balance between rulers and opponents, thereby increasing the risk of armed conflict. The article first explains the main concepts relevant to the discussion (autonomy, political crisis, balancing role), exploring their possible interlinkages and presenting several hypotheses. Subsequently, it discusses four relevant cases from the Middle East before and during the Arab revolts of 2010–2011: Egypt in 2011 and Lebanon in 1958, which demonstrate the balancing capacities of autonomous militaries during major political crises, and Lebanon in 1975 and Syria in 2011, which reveal that nonautonomous militaries cannot play a balancing role in such circumstances. The article concludes with several observations regarding the military's balancing role during major internal political crises in divided and homogenous states.

Cet article présente un tableau sombre de la situation archéologique en Syrie après plusieurs années de conflit militaire. L'analyse présentée met en évidence le rôle négatif de la Direction Générale des Antiquités et des Musées (DGAM) et en particulier sa subordination aux ordres de la propagande de l'autorité politique du pays. Nous observons également avec les changements qui ont eu lieu à la tête de cette institution à la fin de 2017, un refus ferme de coopérer avec les spécialistes syriens qui ont émigré au début de la crise, Les conséquences de cette attitude vont rendre les projets de reconstruction du patrimoine ancien de la Syrie caduque. La DGAM étant l'unique autorité en Syrie après dix années de soulèvement, va engager la « question archéologique syrienne » dans un cycle infernal qui l'amènera vers la ruine et la perte de toutes ses valeurs nobles et particulièrement de l'« archéologie de l'humain ». ; This article offers a bleak view of the desperate situation of Syria's national heritage after from nine years of military conflict. The study describes the negative role of the current archaeological authorities (DGAM), in particular their subordination to the current powers. The study also highlights the changes stemming from the staunch refusal of the DGAM since the end of 2017 to cooperate with qualified Syrian cadres who emigrated at the outset of the crisis which has led to the abandonment of reconstruction projects of ancient Syrian heritage. The DGAM as the sole authority in Syria after ten years of conflict is guiding the "Syrian archaeological question" into an infernal cycle toward a state of shambles and the loss of all its noble values, particularly those of "human archaeology".

In the aftermath of the 2008 financial crunch, a pending era of budgetary austerity looms over Canada. 'Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises' provides a roadmap through the difficult fiscal decisions that have characterized contemporary federal politics across four decades.The authors provide an accessible and comprehensive overview of the constraints that have affected budgetary outcomes in the recent past and that will affect the near future, with analysis spanning micro, macro, social, environmental, and intergenerational domains. They examine the current Harper government's Conservative era, but also look at public budgeting under Chrétien, Mulroney, and Trudeau. Set in the crucial context of macroeconomic policy shifts and in a global comparative context, 'Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises' broadens and deepens our understanding of government spending, borrowing, and taxing. Budgetary domains - complex realms of fiscal content, choice, and governance - are introduced and balanced against an analysis of these domains with pertinent and up-to-date discussions on institutional influences, dominant actors, and shifting power imbalances.

The framing strategies used by political actors to redirect blame for critical incidents that become highly politicized are examined. Military actions involving the failure of the Swedish Navy's submarine detection system in 1994 & the Dutch military's inability to prevent the massacre of thousands of Bosnian Muslims near the Srebrenica region in 1995 are analyzed to determine which strategies European political actors used to deflect accountability for these incidents. Informed by crisis management theory, the extent to which these events were portrayed as violations of core values, products of endemic problems, or results of poor decision making by networks or certain powerful individuals is determined. A framework using multiple decision trees is subsequently presented to illustrate the various paths available to political actors who attempt to redirect blame for politicized incidents. Future research is urged to perform additional studies to demonstrate the strength of connection between political framing & accountability processes. 1 Figure. J. W. Parker

15,000 Years of Climate Change in MENA : Big History, Big Questions -- Climate Change from the Younger Dryas to the Little Ice Age -- The Origins of Agriculture, Drought, and Ancient Empires -- Drought and Political-Economic Transformations in the Ancient Near East -- Cooling, Water Scarcity, and Societal Crises in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt -- Environmental Fragility in MENA from Late Antiquity to Early Modern Eras -- Global Warming in MENA Today and In the Coming Decades -- Climate Wars -- Canaries in the Coal Mine? -- Water, Food, and Adaptation -- The End of MENA?

International audience ; What is really at stake when scientific arguments are put forward to oppose environmental issues to agrarian reform and agricultural development? The aim of this paper is to contribute towards an identification and analysis of the patterns of this new kind of situation where farmers are confronted with ecological requirements. Such contradictions appear as a potential source of major land crises for the near future in Africa but also in other countries. We will see that growing environmental concerns such as the maintenance of biodiversity are tending to partially shift the issues of land conflict by emphasizing long-term sustainability of natural resources. This goal requires the mobilization of scientific knowledge that the various protagonists do not all possess to the same degree. Hence, the function of scientific knowledge in political decision-making is changing, as the increasing use of the concept of evidence-based policy' attests. It therefore seems relevant to identify the main lines of a critical analysis of this new role of scientific knowledge in decisions on land policies. This reflection is particularly necessary in so far as convergent observations show that the focus on scientific arguments often seems to be a pseudo-rationalization of policies used to reinforce the balance of power in place, rather than a real attempt to reshape society-environment relations.

International audience ; What is really at stake when scientific arguments are put forward to oppose environmental issues to agrarian reform and agricultural development? The aim of this paper is to contribute towards an identification and analysis of the patterns of this new kind of situation where farmers are confronted with ecological requirements. Such contradictions appear as a potential source of major land crises for the near future in Africa but also in other countries. We will see that growing environmental concerns such as the maintenance of biodiversity are tending to partially shift the issues of land conflict by emphasizing long-term sustainability of natural resources. This goal requires the mobilization of scientific knowledge that the various protagonists do not all possess to the same degree. Hence, the function of scientific knowledge in political decision-making is changing, as the increasing use of the concept of evidence-based policy' attests. It therefore seems relevant to identify the main lines of a critical analysis of this new role of scientific knowledge in decisions on land policies. This reflection is particularly necessary in so far as convergent observations show that the focus on scientific arguments often seems to be a pseudo-rationalization of policies used to reinforce the balance of power in place, rather than a real attempt to reshape society-environment relations.

What is really at stake when scientific arguments are put forward to oppose environmental issues to agrarian reform and agricultural development? The aim of this paper is to contribute towards an identification and analysis of the patterns of this new kind of situation where farmers are confronted with ecological requirements. Such contradictions appear as a potential source of major land crises for the near future in Africa but also in other countries. We will see that growing environmental concerns such as the maintenance of biodiversity are tending to partially shift the issues of land conflict by emphasizing long-term sustainability of natural resources. This goal requires the mobilization of scientific knowledge that the various protagonists do not all possess to the same degree. Hence, the function of scientific knowledge in political decision-making is changing, as the increasing use of the concept of evidence-based policy' attests. It therefore seems relevant to identify the main lines of a critical analysis of this new role of scientific knowledge in decisions on land policies. This reflection is particularly necessary in so far as convergent observations show that the focus on scientific arguments often seems to be a pseudo-rationalization of policies used to reinforce the balance of power in place, rather than a real attempt to reshape society-environment relations.

In the aftermath of the 2008 financial crunch, a pending era of budgetary austerity looms over Canada. Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises provides a roadmap through the difficult fiscal decisions that have characterized contemporary federal politics across four decades. The authors provide an accessible and comprehensive overview of the constraints that have affected budgetary outcomes in the recent past and that will affect the near future, with analysis spanning micro, macro, social, environmental, and intergenerational domains. They examine the current Harper government's Conservative era, but also look at public budgeting under Chrétien, Mulroney, and Trudeau. Set in the crucial context of macroeconomic policy shifts and in a global comparative context, Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises broadens and deepens our understanding of government spending, borrowing, and taxing. Budgetary domains - complex realms of fiscal content, choice, and governance - are introduced and balanced against an analysis of these domains with pertinent and up-to-date discussions on institutional influences, dominant actors, and shifting power imbalances

International audience ; Many active European volcanoes and volcano observatories are island-based and located far from their administrative "mainland". Consequently, Governments have developed multisite approaches, in which monitoring is performed by a network of individuals distributed across several national research centers. At a transnational level, multinational networks are also progressively emerging. Piton de la Fournaise (La Réunion Island, France) is one such example. Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active volcanoes of the World, and is located at the greatest distance from its "mainland" than any other vulnerable "overseas" site, the observatory being 9365 km from its governing body in Paris. Effusive risk is high, so that a well-coordinated and rapid response involving near-real time delivery of trusted, validated and operational product for hazard assessment is critical. Here we review how near-real time assessments of lava flow propagation were developed using rapid provision, and update, of key source terms through a dynamic and open integration of near-real time remote sensing, modeling and measurement capabilities on both the national and international level. The multi-national system evolved during the five effusive crises of 2014–2015, and is now mature for Piton de la Fournaise. This review allows us to identify strong and weak points in an extended observatory system, and demonstrates that enhanced multi-national integration can have fundamental implications in scientific hazard assessment and response during an on-going effusive crisis

International audience ; Many active European volcanoes and volcano observatories are island-based and located far from their administrative "mainland". Consequently, Governments have developed multisite approaches, in which monitoring is performed by a network of individuals distributed across several national research centers. At a transnational level, multinational networks are also progressively emerging. Piton de la Fournaise (La Réunion Island, France) is one such example. Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active volcanoes of the World, and is located at the greatest distance from its "mainland" than any other vulnerable "overseas" site, the observatory being 9365 km from its governing body in Paris. Effusive risk is high, so that a well-coordinated and rapid response involving near-real time delivery of trusted, validated and operational product for hazard assessment is critical. Here we review how near-real time assessments of lava flow propagation were developed using rapid provision, and update, of key source terms through a dynamic and open integration of near-real time remote sensing, modeling and measurement capabilities on both the national and international level. The multi-national system evolved during the five effusive crises of 2014–2015, and is now mature for Piton de la Fournaise. This review allows us to identify strong and weak points in an extended observatory system, and demonstrates that enhanced multi-national integration can have fundamental implications in scientific hazard assessment and response during an on-going effusive crisis

International audience ; Many active European volcanoes and volcano observatories are island-based and located far from their administrative "mainland". Consequently, Governments have developed multisite approaches, in which monitoring is performed by a network of individuals distributed across several national research centers. At a transnational level, multinational networks are also progressively emerging. Piton de la Fournaise (La Réunion Island, France) is one such example. Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active volcanoes of the World, and is located at the greatest distance from its "mainland" than any other vulnerable "overseas" site, the observatory being 9365 km from its governing body in Paris. Effusive risk is high, so that a well-coordinated and rapid response involving near-real time delivery of trusted, validated and operational product for hazard assessment is critical. Here we review how near-real time assessments of lava flow propagation were developed using rapid provision, and update, of key source terms through a dynamic and open integration of near-real time remote sensing, modeling and measurement capabilities on both the national and international level. The multi-national system evolved during the five effusive crises of 2014–2015, and is now mature for Piton de la Fournaise. This review allows us to identify strong and weak points in an extended observatory system, and demonstrates that enhanced multi-national integration can have fundamental implications in scientific hazard assessment and response during an on-going effusive crisis

International audience ; Many active European volcanoes and volcano observatories are island-based and located far from their administrative "mainland". Consequently, Governments have developed multisite approaches, in which monitoring is performed by a network of individuals distributed across several national research centers. At a transnational level, multinational networks are also progressively emerging. Piton de la Fournaise (La Réunion Island, France) is one such example. Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active volcanoes of the World, and is located at the greatest distance from its "mainland" than any other vulnerable "overseas" site, the observatory being 9365 km from its governing body in Paris. Effusive risk is high, so that a well-coordinated and rapid response involving near-real time delivery of trusted, validated and operational product for hazard assessment is critical. Here we review how near-real time assessments of lava flow propagation were developed using rapid provision, and update, of key source terms through a dynamic and open integration of near-real time remote sensing, modeling and measurement capabilities on both the national and international level. The multi-national system evolved during the five effusive crises of 2014–2015, and is now mature for Piton de la Fournaise. This review allows us to identify strong and weak points in an extended observatory system, and demonstrates that enhanced multi-national integration can have fundamental implications in scientific hazard assessment and response during an on-going effusive crisis

International audience ; Many active European volcanoes and volcano observatories are island-based and located far from their administrative "mainland". Consequently, Governments have developed multisite approaches, in which monitoring is performed by a network of individuals distributed across several national research centers. At a transnational level, multinational networks are also progressively emerging. Piton de la Fournaise (La Réunion Island, France) is one such example. Piton de la Fournaise is one of the most active volcanoes of the World, and is located at the greatest distance from its "mainland" than any other vulnerable "overseas" site, the observatory being 9365 km from its governing body in Paris. Effusive risk is high, so that a well-coordinated and rapid response involving near-real time delivery of trusted, validated and operational product for hazard assessment is critical. Here we review how near-real time assessments of lava flow propagation were developed using rapid provision, and update, of key source terms through a dynamic and open integration of near-real time remote sensing, modeling and measurement capabilities on both the national and international level. The multi-national system evolved during the five effusive crises of 2014–2015, and is now mature for Piton de la Fournaise. This review allows us to identify strong and weak points in an extended observatory system, and demonstrates that enhanced multi-national integration can have fundamental implications in scientific hazard assessment and response during an on-going effusive crisis