Suchergebnisse

La définition de la pauvreté, comme concept théorlque et comme concept opératlonnel, est passé d'assises s'établissant sur l'analyse des nécessités vitales è la notion de dépossession relative. Cette évolution est apparente à 1'examen des écrits de Malthus, des darwinlstes soclaux et de l'école de sociologie à tendance psycho‐sociale représentée par Cooley. Une redefinition de la pauvreté dans les termes d'une dépossession relative permet de rattacher conceptuellement le phénoméne de la pauvreté à la théorie sociologique contemporalne. II est alors possible de formuler des propositions grace auxquelles on est en mesure de suggerer ce que seraient les causes et les consequences de la pauvrete dans les societes lndustrlelles modemes. En ayant recours a la vaste perspective d'une théorie sociale de l'action, on percoit la manifestation de la pauvreté comme concomitante de la modernisation et dans l'ameélioration des conditions et on doit tenir compte des complexités d'un systéme social caractérisé par la spécialisation poussée et l'interdependance de ses organes.

At the very beginning of the investigation, it is necessary to find a word to describe the European masses before the coming of the twin revolutions, the French and Industrial, that have contributed so much to the making of the modern world. "Proletariat" is clearly anachronistic; "wage-earners" is inadequate in a society where cash wages were far from being the most common form of payment for labor. "Working class" is too much identified with nineteenth century developments and, what is worse, conjures up an image of a homogeneous group that does not conform to eighteenth century realities. "Laboring poor" is by far the best, for it emphasizes two primary facts about the people with whom we are concerned: first, that, to one extent or another, they earned their living by doing manual labor, and, second, that they were being continuously impoverished, as Professor Labrousse has shown. The category has several virtues as a tool of historical analysis. It is large enough to take account of the complexities of eighteenth century social conditions, stressing the mobility and social intercourse that existed, albeit on a diminishing scale, between the master artisans and shopkeepers, their apprentices and journeymen on the one hand, and the domestics, beggars, criminals and floating elements in the population, on the other.Classes laborieusesandclasses dangereuseslived side by side and recruited their personnel from one another. They did in fact form a whole, whom contemporaries called"les classes inférieures". If we look toward the future, we see that the French Revolution Was to bring about a temporary split in their ranks by politicizing those among them who became the sans-culottes, and that the Industrial Revolution was to complete this division on other bases by allowing some of the laboring poor to become petty capitalists, While forcing the majority to become proletarians or to fall further still into the nether world of the lumpen-proletariat. In sum, the use of the concept of the laboring poor enables us to come close to the reality of eighteenth century paris and to watch the disagregation of that reality with the passage of time.

The success of the Amer Revolution consisted in the framing of a constitution & the founding of a republic; it was a pol'al revolution that did not involve a soc upheaval. Conversely, the men of the French Revolution met with failure because they had to act under conditions of general poverty & thus were driven to deal with the soc question by means which they deemed pol'al but which were actually violent. The Amer Revolution has remained a local event whereas the French Revolution set the pattern for all the revolutions which followed it. The Amer's knew that public freedom consisted in participating in the pol'al system which gave them a feeling of happiness. The French revolutionist had no prior experience, only ideas & principles untested by reality. As a result those who desired liberation rushed to the assistance of those who desired to found a space for public freedom & priority had to be given to liberation & less & less attention was paid the originally most important goal - the framing of a constitution. The outcome of the Amer Revolution has always been ambiguous & the question of whether the end of gov was to be prosperity or freedom has never been settled. The soc question interfered with the course of the Amer Revolution far less dramatically than it did with the course of the French one. Since America was never overwhelmed by poverty, it was 'the fatal passion for sudden riches' rather than necessity that stood in the way of the founders of the republic. The result, in contra-distinction to the European development, has been that the revolutionary notion of public happiness & pol'al freedom has never vanished completely from the Amer scene. V. D. Sanua.

Variables studied in underdeveloped countries are examined in a study of the "War on Poverty." Through factor analysis, four dimensions of "receptiveness to change" are isolated.

An international organization is only as effective as the degree of support which its sovereign members are willing to give it. This axiom would probably not be disputed, except for the fact that the word "degree" has the inherent property of evaluation hidden in its meaning. This evaluation, since it deals with the mainstream of a nation's political life, is not capable of purely quantitative analysis. A nation's ideas on sovereignty are involved in international cooperation. Its foreign policy, be it passive, neutral, or aggressive, is certainly involved. Its domestic status in terms of tranquility or violence, poverty or plenty, is deeply involved. A world power is tempted to pre-empt an undue share of the credit for the success of an international organization, especially in the field of conflict resolution. The contribution of a single weak nation is often overlooked, and yet the sum of the weak nations' contributions may conceivably be the balancing factor among irreconcilable giants.

The correct starting point in the analysis of any economic unit is to pose the following three questions: What are the needs of the people? What resources are available? How adequately are these resources being mobilised for these needs ?1These questions are applicable to a continent or a country (or for that matter a county, a city, or a village); they can also be applied to the world as a whole. If they are, a picture emerges which, if it does not appal us, because it is so familiar and so easily taken for granted, would certainly astonish a visitor from another planet. The basic human needs for nourishment and for protection from the weather are not great, and the resources known to be available could, with current levels of technique, easily permit a comfortable living standard for everyone. Yet these resources are very largely unexploited or wasted, and miserable poverty is the typical human condition.

A content analysis of the cartoon strip Little Orphan Annie covering a period of 110 weeks ending in 7/1950, revealed that Annie's associates tend to be either great captains of industry or poor ne'er-do-wells lacking initiative or unwilling to work for a living. Her poor associates are not coal-miners, steelworkers or punch-press operators, but the poor whose personal disorganization has no connection with the disorganization existing in the econ system, whose poverty is carefully shown to be of a non-social nature. Annie spends more than 33% of her time fighting foreign spies and their domestic agents. The approved symbols are: honesty, brains, going straight, decency and fair dealing, curiosity, love of countrymen, Santa Claus, Providence, school, peace, prosperity, & equal opportunity. Annie condemns: lazy people, stupid radicals, slave labour camps, truth treatments, fake confessions, 5-year plans, Hitler, book-burning, braggarts and fatheads, neglecting parents, & 'bleeding hearts.' L. P. Chall.

The threat of unemployment in the US is much more immediate than the threat of poverty & hence is more likely to influence econ decisions. Between 1958 & 1963, awareness of unemployment was an important drag on consumer optimism & confidence. Concern about unemployment grows out of the news circulated through the MM & the observed experiences of relatives & friends more often than out of personal financial reverses. Lack of consumer confidence in turn acts as a deterrent to consumer spending. Thus uneasiness about unemployment after 1958 created a self-perpetuating inhibition to econ growth that spelled underemployment of human & material resources. This conclusion emerges from studies of consumer att's conducted by the Survey Res Center of the U of Michigan 4 times a yr & based on stratified random samples of about 1,500 cases each, representative of all households in the continental US. Surveys are conducted by personal interviews using open-ended questions to which R's reply in their own words. The analysis of this material involves bivariate distributions, time series R, & a multivariate cross-sectional technique called the Automatic Interaction Detector model. AA.

Book reviewed in this articleGREAT BRITAINR. H. Tawney Business and Politics under James IChristopher Hill. Economic Problems of the Church from Archbishop Whitgift to the Long Parliament.L. Margaret Midgley (Ed.). A History of the County of Stafford.R. A. McKinley (Ed.). A History of the County of Leicester.John LE Patourel (Ed.). Documents Relating to the Manor and Borough of Leeds, 1066‐1400.Acts of the Privy Council of England, July 1628 to April 1629.Margaret Walker (Ed.). Warwick County Records: Hearth Tax Returns, Vol. I. Hemlingford Hundred: Tamworth and Atherstone Divisions.D. C. Coleman. The British Paper Industry 1495‐1860.William Woodruff. The Rise of the British Rubber Industry During the Nineteenth Century.John Clive. Scotch Reviewers: The Edinburgh Review, 1802‐1815.A. R. Schoyen. The Chartist Challenge. A Portrait of George Julian Harney.Walter E. Houghton. The Victorian Frame of Mind, 1830‐1870.T. F. T. Plucknett. Early English Legal Literature.R. J. Mitchell and M. D. R. Leys. A History of London Life.Kathleen MajorT. Woodrooffe. The Enterprise of England.W. B. Stephens. A Study of Industrial and Commercial Development, 1625‐1688.H. Cecil Pawson. Robert Bakewell, Pioneer Livestock Breeder.G. Rattray Taylor. The Angel‐Makers.WALTER HAGENBUCH. Social Economics.ITALYRoberto S. Lopez. La prima crisi della Banca di GenovaGiuseppe La Mantia. Codice diplomatic dei Re Aragonesi di Sicilia. Vol. II, edited by A. De Stefano and F. Giunta. Series I, vol. XXIV of'Documenti per servire alia Storia di Sicilia'.Renato ZanoheriUgo TucciUNITED STATES OF AMERICALev E. Dobriansky. Veblenism: A New Critique.Bernard Rosenberg. The Values of Veblen.Arthur Nussbaum. A History of the Dollar.Marvin Meyers. The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics and Belief.Walter D. Wyman and Clifton B. KroeberFred A. Shannon. American Farmers'Movements.E. S. Lee and Others. Population Redistribution and Economic Growth: United States, 1870‐1950. Vol. I. Methodological Considerations and Reference Tables.Milton Handler. Antitrust in Perspective: The Complementary Roles of Rule and Discretion.Kenneth O. Bjork. West of the Great Divide: Norwegian Migration to the Pacific Coast, 1847‐1893.John H. Krenkel. Illinois Internal Improvement 1818‐1848.Milton Derber and Edwin Young. Labor and the New Deal.Robert David Enterbero. The Changing Competitive Position of Department Stores in the United States by Merchandise Lines.Raymond G. Miller. Killowatts at Work: A History of the Detroit Edison Company.David Loth. Swope of G.E.‐The Story of Gerard Swope and General Electric in American Business.Kendall Birr. Pioneering in Industrial Research. The Story of the General Electric Research Laboratory.Martin Demino Lewis. Lumberman From Flint: The Michigan Career of Henry H. Crapo 1855‐186/t).Alfred H. Conrad and John R. Meyer.'The Economics of Slavery in the Ante Bellum South', Journal of Political Economy, LXVIUniversity of North CarolinaGENERALLudwig VON Mises. Theory and History.Karl R. Popper. The Poverty of Historicism.Torsten Garrdlund. The Life of Knut Wicksell. Translated from the Swedish by Nancy Adler.John T. Noonan, Jr. The Scholastic Analysis of Usury.Agronomisch‐Historische Bijdragen. Vol. IV.George T. Matthews. The royal general farms in eighteenth‐century France.Stanley J. Stein. Vassouras. A Brazilian Coffee County, 1850‐1900.Stanley J. Stein. The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture: Textile Enterprise in an Underdeveloped Area, 1850‐1950.Richard M. Morse. From Community to Metropolis: A Biography of São Paulo, Brazil.A. W. Currie. The Grand Trunk Railway of Canada.Vernon C. Fowke.The National Policy and the Wheat Economy.A. V. Raman Rao. The Economic Development of Andhra Pradesh, 1766‐1957Jerome B. Cohen. Japan's Postwar Economy.Capital Formation and Economic Growth.