Suchergebnisse

Osim globalnih organizacija, u svijetu je formiran i velik broj regionalnih organizacija koje djeluju na svim kontinentima. Početni oblik integracije bilo je formiranje Zone slobodne trgovine, zatim Carinske unije, Zajedničkog tržišta, Monetarne unije, pa sve do najsloženijeg oblika Ekonomske unije. Danas sve zemlje svijeta sudjeluju u nekim oblicima integracija, dok su neke članice i više regionalnih organizacija. Proces integracije nije lak i jednostavan put, već dugotrajan i složen. Neki od razloga zašto se zemlje odlučuju ući u razne regionalne ekonomske organizacije su proširenje svog tržišta, povećanje konkurentnosti, bolje korištenje resursa, efikasnija proizvodnja i sl. Integracija podrazumijeva da se zemlje članice prilagode određenim pravilima, te da se povežu u smislu razvijanje međusobne suradnje i da tako ostvare cilj radi kojeg se organizacija i formirala. Kao primjer najuspješnije regionalne ekonomske organizacije zasigurno je Europska unija koja se formirala još davne 1951. godine te djeluje i danas s time da povećava broj svojih članica te širi svoj teritorij na Europskom kontinentu. ; In addition to global organizations, a lot of regional organizations have been formed across all continents. The initial form of integration was the establishment of a Free-trade zone, then a Customs Union, a Common Market, a Monetary Union, and finally the most complex form of organization an Economic Union. Today all countries in the world participate in some form of integration, and some even participate in multiple regional organizations. The integration process is not an easy and simple process, but a long and complex one. Some of the reasons why countries decide to participate in various regional economic organizations are the expansion of their markets, increase of competitiveness, better use of resources, more efficient production etc. The integration means that Member States have to conform to certain rules, and to connect in terms of development cooperation, in order to achieve the goal for which the ...

Osim globalnih organizacija, u svijetu je formiran i velik broj regionalnih organizacija koje djeluju na svim kontinentima. Početni oblik integracije bilo je formiranje Zone slobodne trgovine, zatim Carinske unije, Zajedničkog tržišta, Monetarne unije, pa sve do najsloženijeg oblika Ekonomske unije. Danas sve zemlje svijeta sudjeluju u nekim oblicima integracija, dok su neke članice i više regionalnih organizacija. Proces integracije nije lak i jednostavan put, već dugotrajan i složen. Neki od razloga zašto se zemlje odlučuju ući u razne regionalne ekonomske organizacije su proširenje svog tržišta, povećanje konkurentnosti, bolje korištenje resursa, efikasnija proizvodnja i sl. Integracija podrazumijeva da se zemlje članice prilagode određenim pravilima, te da se povežu u smislu razvijanje međusobne suradnje i da tako ostvare cilj radi kojeg se organizacija i formirala. Kao primjer najuspješnije regionalne ekonomske organizacije zasigurno je Europska unija koja se formirala još davne 1951. godine te djeluje i danas s time da povećava broj svojih članica te širi svoj teritorij na Europskom kontinentu. ; In addition to global organizations, a lot of regional organizations have been formed across all continents. The initial form of integration was the establishment of a Free-trade zone, then a Customs Union, a Common Market, a Monetary Union, and finally the most complex form of organization an Economic Union. Today all countries in the world participate in some form of integration, and some even participate in multiple regional organizations. The integration process is not an easy and simple process, but a long and complex one. Some of the reasons why countries decide to participate in various regional economic organizations are the expansion of their markets, increase of competitiveness, better use of resources, more efficient production etc. The integration means that Member States have to conform to certain rules, and to connect in terms of development cooperation, in order to achieve the goal for which the organization was formed. An example of one the most successful regional economic organizations is certainly the European Union, which was formed back in 1951. It is still active today, increasing the number of its members and expanding its territory on the European continent.

The author analyzes recent Habermas' writings on the process of European integration & the new international political order. Having for a long time ignored the issues of foreign policy, in his recent works & speeches Habermas has increasingly turned to these topics. The supranational level is becoming important both due to the more severe limitations to state sovereignty in the process of globalization, & because of the development of new mechanisms of international cooperation & the new regional economic-political integrations. In his theory of democracy at the national level, he emphasizes its deliberative character & shows public communication as the central sphere of mediation between the informal (private) opinions & the institutions of the formation of political will. However, today it is necessary to go beyond the boundaries of the nation-state & establish the parallel mechanisms of political deliberation & decision-making at the international level. The most important step in that direction are regional integrations (in Europe, naturally, it is the European Union). The regional integrations must supplement the UN institutions to compensate for the loss of the ability to govern at the national level & to create a counterbalance to global capitalism. In this context it is important to get the answers to a certain crisis of the EU identity. The European Union today is often seen as a mechanism of bureaucratic management & restrictive regulation, instead of as a guarantor of good life. Habermas thinks that Europe should focus on the guarantees of fundamental rights & values such as the right to education, social justice, autonomy & participation. For that purpose, the European Union should develop into a federal state. To the Euro-skeptical objection that Europe lacks a state-building nation i.e a unified nation as the foundation of political community, Habermas responds that the European civil sodety, European public & the common political culture -- if, indeed, they can be built -- are sufficient for Europe's political unity. The process of designing & adopting the European Constitution has strengthened all three components. The Constitution also helps to explain the objectives of the European integration (boundaries of EU's expansion, interrelationship among levels of goverment) & to enhance legitimacy by creating a fundamental legal act, its the design of which European citizens are involved. For Habermas, the crisis of European unity caused by the disunity of the member-countries' governments over the American war in Iraq is an opportunity. The mobilization of the European civil society against that war (as demonstrated by the pan-European peace demonstrations of 15 February 2003) & the creation of the model of the procedurally well-ordered international politics & cooperation which boosts economic development & social security serve as the counterbalance to the American unilateralism & the aspiration for domination. Habermas supports the model of "multispeed Europe" & thinks that it will not cause a rift in the EU, but can as a matter of fact dynamize the process of European integration. The author concludes that Habermas' political views of the European integration & international politics contain a remarkable dose of utopism. However, the attempt to see beyond the limitations of the existing political reality is a must if these limitations are to be overcome. 12 References. Adapted from the source document.

The author analyzes recent Habermas' writings on the process of European integration & the new international political order. Having for a long time ignored the issues of foreign policy, in his recent works & speeches Habermas has increasingly turned to these topics. The supranational level is becoming important both due to the more severe limitations to state sovereignty in the process of globalization, & because of the development of new mechanisms of international cooperation & the new regional economic-political integrations. In his theory of democracy at the national level, he emphasizes its deliberative character & shows public communication as the central sphere of mediation between the informal (private) opinions & the institutions of the formation of political will. However, today it is necessary to go beyond the boundaries of the nation-state & establish the parallel mechanisms of political deliberation & decision-making at the international level. The most important step in that direction are regional integrations (in Europe, naturally, it is the European Union). The regional integrations must supplement the UN institutions to compensate for the loss of the ability to govern at the national level & to create a counterbalance to global capitalism. In this context it is important to get the answers to a certain crisis of the EU identity. The European Union today is often seen as a mechanism of bureaucratic management & restrictive regulation, instead of as a guarantor of good life. Habermas thinks that Europe should focus on the guarantees of fundamental rights & values such as the right to education, social justice, autonomy & participation. For that purpose, the European Union should develop into a federal state. To the Euro-skeptical objection that Europe lacks a state-building nation i.e a unified nation as the foundation of political community, Habermas responds that the European civil sodety, European public & the common political culture -- if, indeed, they can be built -- are sufficient for Europe's political unity. The process of designing & adopting the European Constitution has strengthened all three components. The Constitution also helps to explain the objectives of the European integration (boundaries of EU's expansion, interrelationship among levels of goverment) & to enhance legitimacy by creating a fundamental legal act, its the design of which European citizens are involved. For Habermas, the crisis of European unity caused by the disunity of the member-countries' governments over the American war in Iraq is an opportunity. The mobilization of the European civil society against that war (as demonstrated by the pan-European peace demonstrations of 15 February 2003) & the creation of the model of the procedurally well-ordered international politics & cooperation which boosts economic development & social security serve as the counterbalance to the American unilateralism & the aspiration for domination. Habermas supports the model of "multispeed Europe" & thinks that it will not cause a rift in the EU, but can as a matter of fact dynamize the process of European integration. The author concludes that Habermas' political views of the European integration & international politics contain a remarkable dose of utopism. However, the attempt to see beyond the limitations of the existing political reality is a must if these limitations are to be overcome. 12 References. Adapted from the source document.

In analyzing regional economic integration in Europe the authors pay special attention to the development in the European Union, for other forms of regional or subregional integration at the continent are in fact mostly transitional & provisional, & directly connected with ED. The authors argue that in spite of considerable success & high level of integration of the EU, several important open issues remain in that process. They are results of mixed character of European integration: political & economic. Too many kinds of interests are of opposed character, & it is very hard to harmonize them in real politics. The main problems in the EU have their cause in the nature of European integration: international competitiveness of European economy, social character of European states, national productivity, challenges of enlargement. References. Adapted from the source document.

The author's starting assumption is that globalization institutionalizes new forms of governance, but that this does not diminish the significance of the national state. On the contrary, globalization forces the advanced industrial societies to find a new balance between calls for economic efficacy & expectations regarding social security. On the other hand, national states have avoided the impact of globalization primarily owing to the (1) institutional acclimatizing reserve of modern democracies, (2) development & application of new political governing instruments, & (3) intelligent usage of international cooperational pressures in favor of national political innovations. However, all this does not mean that the national state has gone through globalization unscathed. A new architecture of political governance has emerged, called by the author the transnational regimes of politics. They include, besides national states, international organizations such as the WTO, regional integrations (EU, NAFTA), as well as a variety of national & transnational interest groups & movements. The author concludes that the efficacy of the new forms of governance must not be overrated. Also, the basic problem today is the expansion of the areas lacking functional markets, successful national states, or global forms of governance. 45 References. Adapted from the source document.

The author distinguishes four levels of integration: regional, national, European, & global. The identity issue occurs at the national & European levels. National identities are subject to constant change, particularly in Europe, dominated by the processes of integration & globalization. Today, the new identities of European states emerge from "the vertical confrontation" (with the "higher order" identity), & not from the "horizontal relations" with other nations. Culture is essential in the development of a common European identity. The new European identity is not going to isolate Europe from the rest of the world. As a matter of fact, the European integration is but a single step in the direction of the global integration, & European identity a stage in achieving the fourth identity level.

The author thinks that the American political & military initiative in Bosnia & Herzegovina has stopped the four-year war & enhanced American influence in the region. The European Union has reacted to the latest developments by adopting a new regional approach toward the countries of Southeastern Europe. This approach has been employed in relation to other European & Mediterranean regions outside the EU as well (Central & Eastern Europe, the Baltic states, the Mediterranean countries, & the Union of Independent States). The EU's policy toward Croatia is extremely reserved. It has insisted on a set of preconditions being fulfilled by Croatia before the negotiations about Croatia's membership in this organization may even commence. Croatia wants to forge links with the EU & is willing to comply with its demands, but is highly skeptical of regional associations. Adapted from the source document.

In the course of its history, Europe has structured itself by means of two models. The first was based on the territorial expansion of regional forces that used violence to break down the resistance of their weaker neighbors & establish the balance of power. In this way, at least temporarily, the way was paved for more radical changes in their polities. This model was in use until the end of WWII. The second model has been built around European integration. The aim of this process has not been the expansion of regional powers & the territorial conquest of their neighbors; it is based on the initiative of the weak to join the organizations that can satisfy their interests & goals. The process of integration excludes coercive methods. However, there is certain asymmetry in the relationship between the center & the periphery (the strong & the weak). The countries that belong to the center define the membership standards for the 'periphery' & evaluate their implementation. The 'central' countries are in a better position than the peripheral ones since the process of integration bolsters their collective identity, while the weaker states -- by accepting the standards of stronger countries -- have to alter their original identity. 3 References. Adapted from the source document.

The author shows that the processes of globalization cannot diminish the role of the nation-state -- as the sole recognizable political community -- in the implementation & development of democracy, though they are undoubtedly going to alter its functioning & make it more complex. When exploring democracy & its expansion outside the borders of the nation-state, we should keep in mind that people do not act solely on a rational interest basis, but also on the basis of values; & that identities, not just interests, are the underlying determinants of their political activity. That is why the theory of cosmopolitan democracy must come to grips with the issue of the legitimation of the cosmopolitan political community as well as of the cosmopolitan democratic political system. This paper addresses these issues. The analysis has shown that these are complex & open questions without which a valid discussion about the transnational political organizations & processes of the cosmopolitan or regional integration & democratization is not possible. The question of the legitimation of the political community (unfortunately, rarely discussed) is in a way primordial in relation to the issue of the legitimation of the political system & political authorities. This issue has been neglected because it is thought that pluralism defines democracy; consequently, the imperative of a certain level of social & cultural homogeneity as a condition of its functioning has been overlooked. The concept of global citizenry requires the creation of a new political identity, while cosmopolitanism must prove that this identity can be brought about without a "democratic deficit" or a "bureaucratic-oligarchic surplus." This is not easy, if we keep in mind the fact that the law & legalism by themselves are not conducive to political commitment & loyalty to political decisions. 39 References. Adapted from the source document.