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The problem of collective identity can be delineated through a brief historical account of the evolution of societies. There are 4 stages of social evolution which trace the relation of ego & group identity: (1) the archaic stage with its kinship ties & mythical world images, (2) the stage of the city-state with centralization, the formation of self-identity, & the rise of community, making group identity possible, (3) the rise of a class society with an emphasis on the community of believers, & (4) the modern era with the demand for strong universalistic commitments & individualistic ego structures. According to Hegel, the last stage reflects the alienation of the subject from society & from nature. This separation of the 'I' from society signifies the modern problem of identity, which can only be solved if it is rendered incomprehensible. For Hegel it is the modern state which embodies rational identity, but there are 4 arguments against this thesis: (A) the bourgeois state is not 'real', (B) for Hegel, rational identity develops in a sovereign state, but the sovereignty of the modern state has become an anachronism-- society is global in nature operating within the worldwide network of communications, (C) it is questionable whether a society can formulate its identity when social integration gets substituted for systems integration, & (D) the historical development of the state in the 19th century reveals that the identity of a society no longer fits an organizational framework, be it a nation or a parastate party. Some aspects of a new identity which is possible in a complex society can only be grounded in a consciousness of universal & equal chance to participate in the kinds of communication processes by which identity formation becomes a continuous learning process. There must be counterarguments & revisions of values & norms; tradition must be appropriated critically. A. Karmen.

This broad, panoramic view of Russian imperial society from the era of Peter the Great to the Revolution in 1917 sets forth a challenging interpretation of one of the world's most powerful and enduring monarchies. Beginning with an overview of imperial Russia's legal and institutional structures, Wirtschafter analyzes the "ruling" classes and service elites (the landowning nobility, the civil and military servicemen, the clergy) and then moves on to examine the middle groups (the raznochintsy, the commercial-industrial elites, the professionals, the intelligentsia) before turning to the peasants, townspeople, and factory workers. Wirtschafter argues provocatively that those very social, political, and legal relationships that have long been viewed as sources of conflict and crisis in fact helped to promote integration and to foster the stability that ensured Imperial Russia's survival. Social Identity in Imperial Russia will thus appeal to a wide range of readers interested in Russian history and culture, state building, and European social history

Fundamentalism versus secularism -- Social identity theory -- Psychological evidence -- Mohammed Atta -- Angry anglicans -- Social identity, Atta, and the Anglicans -- The management of fundamentalist conflicts