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Social movements have become a constitutive part of contemporary societies, especially so in democratic contexts where the institutional conditions allow for movements to be formed and express themselves freely. They involve conflictual relations with clearly identified opponents, are linked by dense informal networks, share a distinct collective identity, and engage primarily – but not exclusively – in protest activities. Explanations of movement mobilization have typically stressed a number of key factors, or combinations thereof: in particular, grievances, mobilizing structures, political opportunities, and framing processes. This chapter provides an overview of some key aspects relating to the study of social movements. Given the breath of this field, it can only be very selective in doing so. The chapter first addresses the question of the definition of social movements. Then it moves on to looking at the ways in which they have been studied. Finally, it briefly discusses what movements leave behind them, that is, the issue of their outcomes and consequences. The chapter concludes with a summary of the most salient aspects addressed and some directions for future research.

As the first presenter in a symposium on social movements in the USSR, held 28 Nov 1989, Henry R. Huttenbach (City Coll, New York, NY), in In Support of Nagorno-Krabakh: Social Components of the Armenian Nationalist Movement, discusses the historical dimension of the politicogeographical dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh, an area of Armenian settlement that is now part of Azerbaijan. The roots of Russian control date from the seventeenth century, when Christian Armenian emissaries urged the Romanovs to liberate the Christians in Nagorno-Karabakh from Muslim control. Centuries of changing from Muslim to Christian domination have culminated most recently in Mikhail Gorbachev's decision, disappointing the Armenian nationalist movement, to leave Nagorno-Karabakh as part of primarily Muslim Azerbaijan, under some superivision of the central Soviet government. In How Political Are the Social Movements in the Baltic Republics?, Alexandras Shtromas (Hillsdale Coll, Mich) contends that the growing social movements in the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania, & Estonia (eg, the Lithuanian Sajudis), which were originally established to implement Gorbachev's policies of glasnost & perestroika, have now become independent political movements acting against the Soviet Communist Party & in favor of their respective nations' freedom. The history of the Sajudis & their Latvian & Estonian counterparts is outlined, & their future goals are delineated. IN Pamiat' as a Social Movement, John B. Dunlop (Hoover Instit, Stanford, Calif) explains that Pamiat' is more of a fringe phenomenon than a social movement, consisting of a small group of extremists within the Russian Republic, that attracted Soviet & worldwide attention when it staged a large raucous demonstration in May 1987, culminating in a meeting with (then) first party secretary of the Mowscow City Party Committee, Boris Yeltsin. Its chief, Dmitri Vasil'ev, described here as a "Russian Mussolini," defined the primary goals of the Pamiat' as: restoration of the Russian monarchy; reestablishment of the Orthodox Church; & recognition of the Russian people as a nationality with a consultative role in their own government. Vasil'ev's interpretation of these goals, however, is riddled with historical inaccuracies, & his projected implementation measures would repel most Russians, not to mention other Soviet nationalities. In Discussion, the three contributors not only respond to questions, & entertain suggestions from members of the symposium audience. J. W. Stanton

The study of social movements: recurring questions, (partially) changing answers -- Social changes and social movements -- The symbolic dimension of collective action -- Collective action and identity -- Individuals, networks, and participation -- Organizations and organizing within social movements -- Eventful protests -- Political opportunities for social movements -- The effects of social movements.

This book considers the proliferation in Malaysia over the past two decades of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) associated with various social movements, both to provide basic information about the NGOs and social movements, and to discuss their role in the development of civil society generally in particular their contribution to the reform movement, which has been gathering strength since 1998. The book discusses the nature and development of the movements, and shows that those movements concerned with human rights and women's issues have made significant contributions to the reform mov