The development of Education systems in Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole and specially in Burkina Faso, Congo, Senegal shows ups and downs due to their low development, despite commitments made by the international community in 1990 at Jomtien in Thailand. The Dakar Forum in 2000, while recognizing progress recorded since independence for African countries,highlighted the need for States to undertake deep reforms with regard to education systems. Actually, since independence, the will shown by States to grant priority to education - as they are convinced that education has a positive impact on development of nations - was undermined by a number of uncertainties, including Structural Adjustment Programs in the 1990's, which have been limiting factors in education systems development. Consequently, education systems weremaintained through a number of strategies aiming at increasing education opportunities in situations where there was almost no financial investment. Recommendations from the Dakar Forum targeting the adoption of education development policies helped to address the most important expenditure line in education budget, i.e. the wage bill. Therefore, appealing to new types of teachers or Non-Government teachers is becoming widespread and is emerging as a standard, thereby deregulating the teaching profession formerly built. After reviewing developments in education system within three countries, from independences to the 2000's, we analyzed the background in which new types of teachers emerged before showing their contribution to education systems development, both in terms of quantity and quality. This analysis was conducted following a methodology consisting in reviewing documents and using several databases of the Education Systems Analysis Program of CONFEMEN (PASEC), the Evaluation of Learning Achievement (EAS) and the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ). At the end of our research, we have reached the conclusion that new types of teachers or contractual ...
The development of Education systems in Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole and specially in Burkina Faso, Congo, Senegal shows ups and downs due to their low development, despite commitments made by the international community in 1990 at Jomtien in Thailand. The Dakar Forum in 2000, while recognizing progress recorded since independence for African countries,highlighted the need for States to undertake deep reforms with regard to education systems. Actually, since independence, the will shown by States to grant priority to education - as they are convinced that education has a positive impact on development of nations - was undermined by a number of uncertainties, including Structural Adjustment Programs in the 1990's, which have been limiting factors in education systems development. Consequently, education systems weremaintained through a number of strategies aiming at increasing education opportunities in situations where there was almost no financial investment. Recommendations from the Dakar Forum targeting the adoption of education development policies helped to address the most important expenditure line in education budget, i.e. the wage bill. Therefore, appealing to new types of teachers or Non-Government teachers is becoming widespread and is emerging as a standard, thereby deregulating the teaching profession formerly built. After reviewing developments in education system within three countries, from independences to the 2000's, we analyzed the background in which new types of teachers emerged before showing their contribution to education systems development, both in terms of quantity and quality. This analysis was conducted following a methodology consisting in reviewing documents and using several databases of the Education Systems Analysis Program of CONFEMEN (PASEC), the Evaluation of Learning Achievement (EAS) and the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ). At the end of our research, we have reached the conclusion that new types of teachers or contractual teachers or Non-Government teachers contributed to achieving significant development in terms of education opportunities and they were not less performing than their Government counterparts. It was also noted, based on country experiences, some policy convergence towards stabilizingsuch new jobs by professionalizing them. ; Le développement des systèmes éducatifs en Afrique subsaharienne en général et au Burkina Faso, au Congo et au Sénégal en particulier, connaît beaucoup de péripéties du fait de leur faible développement malgré les engagements pris par la communauté internationale en 1990 à Jomtien en Thaïlande. Le forum de Dakar, en 2000, tout en reconnaissant les progrès enregistrés depuis les indépendances par les pays africains, a mis en évidence la nécessité pour les États d'engager des réformes profondes des systèmes éducatifs. En effet, depuis les indépendances, la volonté manifestée par les États de faire de l'éducation une priorité parce que convaincus de son impact positif sur le développement des nations, s'est heurtée à un certain nombre d'aléas dont les programmes d'ajustement structurel dans les années 1990 qui ont limité fortement le développement des systèmes éducatifs. Dès lors, les systèmes éducatifs se sont maintenus à travers un certain nombre de stratégies visant à accroître l'offre dans des situations où l'investissement financier est pratiquement nul. Les recommandations issues du forum de Dakar visant à adopter des politiques de développement de l'éducation, ont ainsi conduit à s'attaquer au poste de dépenses le plus important dans le budget de l'éducation, qu'est la masse salariale. Dès lors, le recours à de nouveaux types d'enseignants ou enseignants non fonctionnaires va se généraliser et apparaître comme une norme, dérégulant ainsi la fonction enseignante anciennement construite. Après avoir passé en revue l'évolution du système éducatif dans les trois pays, des indépendances aux années 2000, nous avons analysé le contexte d'émergence des nouveaux types d'enseignants avant d'indiquer leur apport tant au plan quantitatif que qualitatif au développement des systèmes éducatifs. Cette analyse a été possible grâce à une méthodologie basée sur une revue documentaire et l'exploitation de plusieurs bases de données du Programme d'analyse des systèmes éducatifs de la CONFEMEN (PASEC), de l'évaluation des acquis scolaires (EAS) et du Consortium de l'Afrique Australe et Orientale pour le pilotage de la qualité de l'éducation (SACMEQ). Au terme de notre recherche, nous pouvons conclure que les nouveaux types d'enseignants ou enseignants contractuels ou non fonctionnaires ont contribué à un développement appréciable au niveau de l'offre éducative sans être moins performants que leurs collègues fonctionnaires. Il ressort également suivant les expériences des pays, une certaine convergence des politiques vers la stabilisation de ces nouveaux emplois à travers leur professionnalisation.
In a context marked by various problems, the citizen is called upon to develop various skills necessary to access the labor market, to make choices and to participate in decision-making mechanisms. However, this is only possible if he is able to analyze and understand the phenomena that make up and structure his environment. Education and teaching should help students develop the forms of understanding and mental habits they need to become compassionate people who can think for themselves and cope with life. To develop such skills, the education system is in high demand to induce such skills. In this context, a parallel development must concern the teacher training system. However, such an evolution implies political choices and accompanying measures, to create the conditions conducive to the training of teachers capable of deploying innovative and evolving teaching projects. At present, the teacher's function is no longer limited to delivering knowledge in a timid context of submission, but to design and create learning conditions and situations. In a world marked by globalization phenomena and information and communication technologies, the teacher works in a constantly changing social and economic environment. In such a developing context, professionalization, anticipation and adaptation would be major features of the teacher of tomorrow. ; Dans un contexte marqué par diverses problématiques, le citoyen est appelé à développer diverses compétences nécessaires pour accéder au marché du travail, pour opérer des choix et pour participer aux mécanismes de prise de décision. Cependant, ceci n'est possible que s'il est apte à analyser et à comprendre les phénomènes qui composent et structurent son environnement. L'éducation et l'enseignement devraient aider les étudiants et les étudiantes à développer les formes de compréhension et les habitudes mentales dont ils ont besoin pour devenir des personnes compatissantes capables de penser par elles-mêmes et de faire face à la vie. Pour développer de telles compétences, le système d'enseignement est fortement sollicité pour induire de telles compétences. Dans ce contexte, une évolution parallèle doit concerner le système de formation à l'enseignement. Cependant, une telle évolution implique des choix politiques et des mesures d'accompagnement pour réunir les conditions propices à la formation d'enseignants aptes à déployer des projets d'enseignement innovants et évolutifs. A l'heure actuelle, la fonction de l'enseignant ne se limite plus à livrer des connaissances dans un contexte timide de soumission, mais de concevoir et de créer les conditions et les situations d'apprentissage. Dans un monde marqué par des phénomènes de globalisation et des technologies de l'information et de la communication, l'enseignant travaille dans un environnement social et économique en évolution perpétuelle. Dans un tel contexte en devenir la professionnalisation, l'anticipation et l'adaptation constitueraient des traits majeurs de l'enseignant de demain.
At a time marked by austerity policies, the search for efficiency, the desire to avoid exclusion or to integrate diversity, education and training systems are diversifying and becoming more complex, triggering reforms inspired by the New Public Management (NGP). Taking note of this new framework, this file examines the ways in which these reforms have transformed the conditions for working in education. He emphasised the hybridity of these processes and stressed the need to take into account specific situations in order to understand what NGP principles do to the fractions of field education professionals in the French-speaking area (France, Belgium, Quebec and Roman Switzerland). Not all of them also gain from the adoption of these reforms, as their ownership also reflects the social characteristics of the various parts of which the teaching staff are composed. Providing evidence of the reasons why professionals embrace, accept or reject reforms that change previous definitions of teachers' professionality and analyse the uses they make of these reforms also allows the map of professional territories to be drawn up. These are shrinking or expanding when it comes to both accountability and responsibility for achieving policy objectives as an integral part of professional activity. ; International audience ; At a time marked by austerity policies, the search for efficiency, the desire to avoid exclusion or to integrate diversity, education and training systems are diversifying and becoming more complex, triggering reforms inspired by the New Public Management (NGP). Taking note of this new framework, this file examines the ways in which these reforms have transformed the conditions for working in education. He emphasised the hybridity of these processes and stressed the need to take into account specific situations in order to understand what NGP principles do to the fractions of field education professionals in the French-speaking area (France, Belgium, Quebec and Roman Switzerland). Not all of them also gain ...
Foreword by Gerd-Hanne Fosen, Co-Chair, Teacher Task Force, Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, Stefania Giannini, Assistant Director-General for Education, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and Abdulrahaman I. Almedaires, Co-Chair, Teacher Task Force, Regional Center of Quality and Excellence in Education, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ; Includes bibliography
Life stories from teachers were poorly treated. However, the countless anecdotes at their disposal, written poems, testimonies, thoughts and revealed actions make it possible to understand, from a different angle, the role of educator they played during their career. The epistemological fund thus created is extremely rich for researchers in the humanities and social sciences. It was in this perspective that I looked at the trajectory of a former teacher dedicated to the educational and social cause in Senegal, Momar Lo. He served more than thirty years at the Senegalese school. He has also engaged politically in his place in which he is convinced that education and development include children's schooling and research. The biographical analysis presented here is largely based on a series of interviews I have conducted with Momar Lo, whose life has been entirely dedicated to helping children in school in order to provide them with an appropriate framework for continuing their studies. ; As histórias de vida que emanam dos professores têm recebido pouca atenção. Contudo, as inúmeras anedotas que têm à sua disposição, os poemas escritos, os testemunhos, os seus pensamentos e as suas acções reveladas tornam possível apreender, de um ângulo diferente, a missão de educador que desempenharam durante a sua carreira. A colecção epistemológica assim criada é extremamente rica para os investigadores das ciências humanas e sociais. É nesta perspectiva que me interessei pela carreira de um antigo professor dedicado à causa educativa e social no Senegal, Momar Lo. Serviu a escola senegalesa durante mais de trinta anos. Era também politicamente activo no seu país, convencido de que a educação e o desenvolvimento eram alcançados através da escolarização das crianças e da investigação. A análise biográfica aqui apresentada baseia-se em grande parte numa série de entrevistas que realizei com Momar Lo, cuja vida foi inteiramente dedicada a ajudar as crianças na escola a fornecer-lhes um quadro adequado para continuarem os seus ...
The normative foundations of corporate social responsibility (CSR), transposed to the research teacher in management sciences, are interpellent because of the many paradoxes they raise. This article, which is interdisciplinary by law and management, seeks to ascertain what recovery of liability, and more specifically, the nature of the obligations arising from it for the research teacher in a management school, both as an actor, within the framework of its organisation or institution, but also as a member of a scientific community. While the responsibility of any researcher teacher can only be measured by reference to his/her academic freedom, his/her societal responsibility (SR) is assessed by taking into account the expectations of its stakeholders and the integration of associated practices. However, far from always being an opportunity to meet the scientific challenges linked to sustainable development, our critical thinking makes it possible to highlight the consequences of this managerial logic, now coupled with a legal logic, which reduces the autonomy of researchers, but does not guarantee the social, societal or environmental benefits of their work. ; The normative foundations of corporate social responsibility (CSR), transposed to the teacher-researcher in management sciences, raise questions because of the many paradoxes they involve. This article, which is interdisciplinary across law and management, seeks to determine what this responsibility covers, and more precisely, the nature of the obligations that arise for the teacher-researcher in a management school, both as an actor, within the framework of his or her organization or institution, but also as a member of a scientific community. While the responsibility of any scholar can only be measured in terms of his or her academic freedom, his or her societal responsibility (SR) can be assessed by taking into-account the expectations of his or her stakeholders and integrating the associated pract ices. However, far from always being an opportunity to ...
Today, inclusive education leads to understanding students from the angle of alterities questioning the notion of diversity of needs. The inclusive school is a school for all students, a democratic school in law. Teachers feel a great responsibility, which society reminds them of, but they do not always think they have the means to exercise this responsibility. In addition, they do not feel up to it, which can lead to a feeling of incompetence that can lead to guilt. These works are situated in the inclusive paradigm, on the side of a central actor : the specialist teacher. This professional plays a central role in welcoming students with special educational needs. However, from an inclusive perspective developed in support of the multitrack approach model, around which the school inclusion of the French education system is organized, the following questions are put forward : the specialist teacher a specialist teacher? The specialist teacher an inclusive teacher? The emergence of a professionalism is analyzed in connection with the political and social evolutions of the French education system within a perspective of international understanding. Choosing to study the inclusive paradigm from the position of teacher who enrolled in it from and from continuing professional training and certification, CAPPEI training, leads to the question of what are the subjective commitments of a professional in the making (of a specialized teacher) facing the various injunctions and misunderstandings experienced in the field. It is therefore a question of questioning the development of an emerging professionalism (of the specialist/inclusive teacher) in the era of diversity, by posing a hypothetical posture of practitioner/researcher. To do this, an exploration was carried out from the posture of an accompanying researcher, and a respondent defined as a competent actor, an epistemological choice implemented through a range of data collection tools aimed at collecting data. Putting into words practitioners in search of ...
This research explores the consequences of introducing information and communication technologies (ICT) in the field of education in Sub-Saharan Africa. It seeks to identify, from a social policy perspective, the differences between the discourse adopted by differing social actors and actual field practice. The study is based on the integration of technologies in teacher training in Burkina Faso, where there are high levels of poverty and illiteracy. This work tries to show that the integration of the ICT in education, whose declared objective is to resolve structural, institutional and teaching problems, as well as reducing the socio-economic in-balance with other industrialized countries, is largely utopian, given the actual state of development in Burkina Faso – a utopia resulting from a mythical understanding of technology. After the presentation of the context of the research, (Chapter 1), the second chapter offers a review of the relevant literature and the theoretical approaches underpinning the research. Chapter 3 explains the methodology. The final chapter presents the results of the analysis, combining data from direct observation, official texts and interviews (25) with educators and politicians. ; La recherche présentée vise à explorer les enjeux de l'intégration des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) dans le domaine de l'éducation en Afrique sub-saharienne. Selon une approche à orientation socio-politique, il s'agit de contribuer à mettre en valeur les différentiels entre les discours d'acteurs sociaux et les pratiques effectives sur le terrain. L'étude se centre sur le cas de l'intégration des technologies dans la formation des enseignants d'un pays pauvre où le taux d'analphabétisme est important : le Burkina Faso. Ce travail tente de montrer qu'une intégration des TIC en éducation, dont l'objectif déclaré est de résoudre des difficultés d'ordre structurel, institutionnel et pédagogique et de réduire l'écart socio-économique avec les pays industrialisés, constitue une ...
This research explores the consequences of introducing information and communication technologies (ICT) in the field of education in Sub-Saharan Africa. It seeks to identify, from a social policy perspective, the differences between the discourse adopted by differing social actors and actual field practice. The study is based on the integration of technologies in teacher training in Burkina Faso, where there are high levels of poverty and illiteracy. This work tries to show that the integration of the ICT in education, whose declared objective is to resolve structural, institutional and teaching problems, as well as reducing the socio-economic in-balance with other industrialized countries, is largely utopian, given the actual state of development in Burkina Faso – a utopia resulting from a mythical understanding of technology. After the presentation of the context of the research, (Chapter 1), the second chapter offers a review of the relevant literature and the theoretical approaches underpinning the research. Chapter 3 explains the methodology. The final chapter presents the results of the analysis, combining data from direct observation, official texts and interviews (25) with educators and politicians. ; La recherche présentée vise à explorer les enjeux de l'intégration des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) dans le domaine de l'éducation en Afrique sub-saharienne. Selon une approche à orientation socio-politique, il s'agit de contribuer à mettre en valeur les différentiels entre les discours d'acteurs sociaux et les pratiques effectives sur le terrain. L'étude se centre sur le cas de l'intégration des technologies dans la formation des enseignants d'un pays pauvre où le taux d'analphabétisme est important : le Burkina Faso. Ce travail tente de montrer qu'une intégration des TIC en éducation, dont l'objectif déclaré est de résoudre des difficultés d'ordre structurel, institutionnel et pédagogique et de réduire l'écart socio-économique avec les pays industrialisés, constitue une ...
This research explores the consequences of introducing information and communication technologies (ICT) in the field of education in Sub-Saharan Africa. It seeks to identify, from a social policy perspective, the differences between the discourse adopted by differing social actors and actual field practice. The study is based on the integration of technologies in teacher training in Burkina Faso, where there are high levels of poverty and illiteracy. This work tries to show that the integration of the ICT in education, whose declared objective is to resolve structural, institutional and teaching problems, as well as reducing the socio-economic in-balance with other industrialized countries, is largely utopian, given the actual state of development in Burkina Faso – a utopia resulting from a mythical understanding of technology. After the presentation of the context of the research, (Chapter 1), the second chapter offers a review of the relevant literature and the theoretical approaches underpinning the research. Chapter 3 explains the methodology. The final chapter presents the results of the analysis, combining data from direct observation, official texts and interviews (25) with educators and politicians. ; La recherche présentée vise à explorer les enjeux de l'intégration des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) dans le domaine de l'éducation en Afrique sub-saharienne. Selon une approche à orientation socio-politique, il s'agit de contribuer à mettre en valeur les différentiels entre les discours d'acteurs sociaux et les pratiques effectives sur le terrain. L'étude se centre sur le cas de l'intégration des technologies dans la formation des enseignants d'un pays pauvre où le taux d'analphabétisme est important : le Burkina Faso. Ce travail tente de montrer qu'une intégration des TIC en éducation, dont l'objectif déclaré est de résoudre des difficultés d'ordre structurel, institutionnel et pédagogique et de réduire l'écart socio-économique avec les pays industrialisés, constitue une utopie au stade actuel du développement du Burkina Faso. Une utopie basée sur une interprétation mythique des technologies. Un premier chapitre réunit des éléments de contexte. Un deuxième chapitre propose un état des lieux des travaux antérieurs et les repères théoriques qui orientent cette recherche. Un troisième chapitre expose la démarche méthodologique. Un quatrième et dernier chapitre présente les résultats de l'analyse croisée de données d'observation (observation directe et fiches de renseignements), de données de contenus (textes officiels) et de données provenant de vingt-cinq entretiens d'acteurs éducatifs et politiques.
To adapt the school system to economic, cultural and social changing, new modes of regulation in education and training policies are implemented. The teachers in France, as in other developed countries, are confronted with a series of reforms. The reform of initial teacher training in 2010, called the teachers' "masterisation" is one of the last events marking these institutional transformations.This research focuses on the changes in the function and professional identity of French first degree mentor teachers. These professionals, hardly studied these last two decades, have the particularity to perform a dual function. These school teachers are in charge of a pupils' class in primary school and have also a mission as trainer in initial teacher training. Based on a theoretical framework linking the concepts of institutional arrangement, professional identity and professional ordeal, the study first queries the various institutional arrangements that regulate these professionals' activities before and after the 2010 reform. It highlights the latest developments in their dual function. Then, a longitudinal survey, through participant observation and comprehensive interviews with nine mentor teachers employed in the department of Loire-Atlantique, identifies professional ordeals experienced by this group. These ordeals provide access to elements that construct and transform over time these mentor teachers' professional identities. ; Pour adapter le système scolaire aux mutations économiques, culturelles et sociales, de nouveaux modes de régulation des politiques d'éducation et de formation sont mis en oeuvre. Les enseignants français, comme dans d'autres pays développés, sont ainsi confrontés à des réformes successives. La réforme de la formation initiale des enseignants de 2010, dite de la masterisation des enseignants, constitue un des derniers événements institutionnels marquant ces transformations.Cette recherche porte sur l'évolution de la fonction et de l'identité professionnelle des maîtres formateurs de ...
To adapt the school system to economic, cultural and social changing, new modes of regulation in education and training policies are implemented. The teachers in France, as in other developed countries, are confronted with a series of reforms. The reform of initial teacher training in 2010, called the teachers' "masterisation" is one of the last events marking these institutional transformations.This research focuses on the changes in the function and professional identity of French first degree mentor teachers. These professionals, hardly studied these last two decades, have the particularity to perform a dual function. These school teachers are in charge of a pupils' class in primary school and have also a mission as trainer in initial teacher training. Based on a theoretical framework linking the concepts of institutional arrangement, professional identity and professional ordeal, the study first queries the various institutional arrangements that regulate these professionals' activities before and after the 2010 reform. It highlights the latest developments in their dual function. Then, a longitudinal survey, through participant observation and comprehensive interviews with nine mentor teachers employed in the department of Loire-Atlantique, identifies professional ordeals experienced by this group. These ordeals provide access to elements that construct and transform over time these mentor teachers' professional identities. ; Pour adapter le système scolaire aux mutations économiques, culturelles et sociales, de nouveaux modes de régulation des politiques d'éducation et de formation sont mis en oeuvre. Les enseignants français, comme dans d'autres pays développés, sont ainsi confrontés à des réformes successives. La réforme de la formation initiale des enseignants de 2010, dite de la masterisation des enseignants, constitue un des derniers événements institutionnels marquant ces transformations.Cette recherche porte sur l'évolution de la fonction et de l'identité professionnelle des maîtres formateurs de ...
In 1951, a few years before Morocco's independence, Captain Jean Vaugien, an officer of indigenous affairs, wrote a memory on the Berber tribe for which he was responsible. What could only have been an administrative report intended to guide French colonial politics is becoming, thanks to the great curiosity and familiarity with the Berber tribes of Jean Vaugien, a real work of ethnologist, historian and geograph. It was on the ground, by listening to the old people around a tea tray, that he collected the facts of war and the traditions of Aït Uirra. By observing them in their surroundings, he was able to understand them and see them evolve. Under the influence of French colonisation and the modern world, the Uirra Aït abandon their life as a semi-nomadic pastor and guerrier, sedentarise, educate, worry, open up to communism, nationalism and Islam. A valuable document both through what he teaches us on a Berber tribe at the beginning of the 20th century and because it teaches us about the work of the French colonial administration. ; En 1951, quelques années avant l'indépendance du Maroc, le capitaine Jean Vaugien, officier des affaires indigènes, rédige un mémoire sur la tribu berbère dont il a la charge. Ce qui n'aurait pu être qu'un rapport administratif destiné à guider la politique coloniale française devient, grâce à la grande curiosité et la familiarité avec les tribus berbères de Jean Vaugien, un véritable travail d'ethnologue, d'historien et de géographe. C'est sur le terrain, en écoutant les anciens autour d'un plateau de thé, qu'il a recueilli les faits de guerre et les traditions des Aït Ouirra. En les observant dans leur milieu il a pu les comprendre et les voir évoluer. Sous l'influence de la colonisation française et du monde moderne les Aït Ouirra abandonnent leur vie de pasteur et guerrier semi-nomade, se sédentarisent, s'instruisent, s'arabisent, s'ouvrent au communisme, au nationalisme et à l'Islam. Un document précieux tant par ce qu'il nous apprend sur une tribu berbère au début du XXe ...
Faced with the challenge of a knowledge-based society, States must set up bodies to control the quality of knowledge and its transmission. In France, the inspection bodies created at the beginning of the 19th century have constantly evaluated teachers, establishments, policies and systems. Currently, the analysis of the inspectors' activities shows a great fragmentation of their function which does not facilitate their essential mission of evaluation and scientific, didactic and pedagogical improvement of the taught subjects. Four avenues are proposed to consolidate the evaluation work and respond to the economic, cultural and educational challenges of globalization. ; Devant le défi d'une société de la connaissance, les États doivent instituer des organes de contrôle de la qualité des savoirs et de leur transmission. En France, les corps d'inspection créés au début du 19ème siècle n'ont eu de cesse d'évaluer les professeurs, les établissements, les politiques et les dispositifs. Actuellement, l'analyse des activités des inspecteurs montre un grand éclatement de leur fonction qui ne facilite pas leur mission essentielle d'évaluation et d'amélioration scientifique, didactique et pédagogique des disciplines enseignées. Quatre pistes sont proposées pour consolider le travail d'évaluation et répondre aux défis économiques, culturels et scolaires, de la mondialisation.
