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This introduction to the special issue situates its essays within the emergent field of literary-diplomatic studies. It fully discusses the state of current knowledge, providing the first chronological overview of the developing relationship between diplomacy and literary culture across two centuries of English history. Among the subjects addressed are the new literary milieux accessed by resident ambassadors; the use of the press to diplomatic ends; new diplomatic genres such as handbooks and letter-books; diplomacy and controversy on the public stage; literary wit in Restoration diplomacy; and the widening audiences for diplomatic literatures at the end of the seventeenth century. It draws out the findings of this special issue on the development of political publics in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, outlining a complex and multidirectional relationship between the government and public sphere; the role of self-interest in motivating engagement with publics; and the role of imitation in entering public debate.

International audience According to a grand narrative that long ago ceased to be told, there was a seventeenth century Scientific Revolution, during which a few heroes conquered nature thanks to mathematics. This grand narrative began with the exhibition of quantitative laws that these heroes, Galileo and Newton for example, had disclosed: the law of falling bodies, according to which the speed of a falling body is proportional to the square of the time that has elapsed since the beginning of its fall; the law of gravitation, according to which two bodies are attracted to one another in proportion to the sum of their masses and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance separating them -- according to his own preferences, each narrator added one or two quantitative laws of this kind. The essential feature was not so much the examples that were chosen, but, rather, the more or less explicit theses that accompanied them. First, mathematization would be taken as the criterion for distinguishing between a qualitative Aristotelian philosophy and the new quantitative physics. Secondly, mathematization was founded on the metaphysical conviction that the world was created pondere, numero et mensura, or that the ultimate components of natural things are triangles, circles, and other geometrical objects. This metaphysical conviction had two immediate consequences: that all the phenomena of nature can be in principle submitted to mathematics and that mathematical language is transparent; it is the language of nature itself and has simply to be picked up at the surface of phenomena. Finally, it goes without saying that, from a social point of view, the evolution of the sciences was apprehended through what has been aptly called the "relay runner model," according to which science progresses as a result of individual discoveries. Grand narratives such as this are perhaps simply fictions doomed to ruin as soon as they are clearly expressed. In any case, the very assumption on which this grand narrative relies can be ...

At the beginning of the 17th century, under Cervantes's feathers, a stray figure of fou, resisting a world which he refuses to regard as its contemporaries, was launched with body lost in a series of vain causes worn by as much great as ridicule.Those which, in the last two centuries, resisted or still resisted, played a special role in the figure of this Iberian fu, which became, from the twentieth century, a flag carrier on the social and political arena, An Eulalio Ferrer, a Spanish republican interned in the Argelès-sur-Mer camp in 1939, will explain later in his writing that he survived thanks to a constant reading of Cervantes's work. As of 1994, Deputy Commander Marcos in Mexico multiplied the references to the Quichood donation, the 'biggest political book ever written'. A Armand Gatti, named 'Donqui' in the maquis, organised in 2001 an exhibition entitled 'Les voyages de don don Quichood', dedicated to various figures of resistance. While in 2006 an association was set up in Paris to combat the exclusion of homeless people, she took the name of the 'Quichood Donor Children'. There is more than a denial of floughing in chess, Quichood donation; the character also embodies a unique attitude towards the world that has allowed him to become a tutelary figure of resistance, or rather resistors. ; International audience The opening of the 17th century saw the advent of Cervantes's Quixote, a wandering lunatic resisting a world he refused to see as his contemporaries did, a character unreservedly engaged in a string of lost causes grounded upon both grandeur and ridicule. In the past two centuries, the Iberian madman has remained a remarkably prominent figurehead to those who resisted or are resisting still and has become, from the 20th century onwards, a standard bearer on the political and social scenes. Eulalio Ferrer, a republican Spaniard interned in the Argelès-sur-Mer camp in 1939, explained later in his writings how reading Cervantes unceasingly did help him survive. In Mexico, Subcomandante Marcos has ...

The study focuses on the historical aspect of the Russian government in search of optimal patterns for the administrative and legal development of the Northeastern territories in the 18th–19th centuries. With the current administrative division, Northeast integrates Magadan Oblast, Kamchatka Krai, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, and northeastern regions of the Republic of Yakutia (Sakha). The methodology employed in the study includes cause-and-effect relations, analysis, and historical description methods. The chronological framework covers two centuries: the 18th and 19th centuries. At the beginning of the said period, the northeastern lands were little-explored by the central government and were valued as a source of furs for the State treasury. Indigenous peoples were seen as payers of "Yasak" tribute. In the 19th century, Russia reached the Pacific Rim, and the Northeast became the country's outpost in this region. The article defines key factors of Russia's expansion eastwards up to the Pacific coast, as well as the associated transformation in terms of significance and functions of the northeastern region within the above–noted period. The problems of governing huge territories are covered — such as the vast geographical distance from the central government, polyethnicity, sparse and dispersed population, the bulky and ineffective system of government. The article also defines the role of the Siberia Prikaz in governing the northeastern lands. The author explores the acts of the state in search of optimal forms of government and administrative and territorial division during the Imperial Era. There is a brief touch on personalia (V. Bering, M. Speransky, N. Muraviev) who contributed to the development of the administrative and territorial structure of the northeastern borderlands of Russia.

While hope is repeatedly present in Shelley's The Revolt of Islam, two centuries later global politics seems stifled by a domination of terror, war and liberticidal power structures, echoing the poem's 'brotherhood of ill'. This article reflects on Revolt's continuing relevance for the sustenance of hope amongst contemporary progressive movements. It focuses on the strategies to re-kindle hope and utopian visions that Shelley's imagery hints at, and relates them to some aspects of the Arab Springs: these strategies are identified as Godwinian liberating truth, underground forces, symbolic locations and the endurance of culture and education.

Assuming that the passing of time is reflected in each individual, preventing its stagnation, and that all interpretations must be temporally and spatially contextualized, the contract is studied here according to its changes in the last two centuries, changes that were propelled, at first, by the transition from the Liberal state to the Welfare state and, later on, by its replacement for the Democratic state of Law. ; Teniendo en cuenta que el paso del tiempo se refleja en cada existir, impidiendo su estancamiento, y además, que toda interpretación debe ser contextualizada en el tiempo y en el espacio, el contrato es estudiado aquí observando las transformaciones que este ha sufrido en los últimos dos siglos. el presente estudio trata de conocer los cambios ocurridos por la transición del estado Liberal al estado social y, más tarde, por la sustitución de este por el estado Democrático.

Ottoman expansionism, both by sea and land, is the reason for the grain-quantity of stories written about the other great empire of the Mediterranean in the first two centuries of the Modern Age. Among its pages, it is common to find chapters or headings describing the capital of its political and religious antagonist. Constantinopla is for them the representation of power and the plenty of the Turks, as well as a symbol and a desired place. ; Peer reviewed ; Ottoman expansionism, both by sea and land, is the reason for the grain-quantity of stories written about the other great empire of the Mediterranean in the first two centuries of the Modern Age. Among its pages, it is common to find chapters or headings describing the capital of its political and religious antagonist. Constantinopla is for them the representation of power and the plenty of the Turks, as well as a symbol and a desired place. ; El expansionismo otomano, tanto por mar como por tierra, es la razón que explica la graíi-cantidad de relatos que se escriben sobre el otro gran imperio del Mediterráneo en los dos primeros siglos de la Edad Moderna. Entre sus páginas es frecuente encontrar capítulos o epígrafes que describen la capital de sus antagonistas políticos y religiosos. Constantinopla es para ellos la representación del poder y la grandeza de los turcos, además de un símbolo y un lugar deseado.

The collective management of irrigation is an essential factor in agrarian development, both present and past. However, the relationship of irrigation associations with the State remains underexplored, despite the increasingly important role played by water policies in the modern world. The present article examines this relationship in Spain over the last two centuries. Our results suggest that, first, the State played a decisive part in the emergence and evolution of irrigation associations, and this belies the assumption of the traditional origin of these institutions; second, that farmers, despite being subject to the regulatory framework, enjoyed substantial autonomy in the management of water resources; and, third, that the relationship between local associations and the State changed over time, in response to political regime changes and the transformation of irrigation agriculture. When the state tried to impose authoritarian policies upon irrigation users, these reacted by developing unprecedented forms of organisation. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Diana Wechsler's curatorial essay entitled "Images between reality and utopia. Art and history in Argentina" offers a penetrating gaze into two centuries of artistic production in this southern country. In her history, Wechsler reconciles the encompassing whole with the sharpness of each episode that comprises the book of charts with which she invokes Aby Warburg's figure. Rather than a replication of her approach, the following words refer to provisional answers that —as I consider myself politically a historian— I have reached through my doctoral research of the relations between art and politics in Argentina from the 1960s until the 2001 crisis —two of the moments that Wechsler examines more closely. I do not think I am mistaken if I say that they are possible answers to shared questions. Even on the basis of a general coincidence of our viewpoints, I hope that their presentation will either arouse dialogue or else humbly complement the ideas so solidly expressed in Wechsler's text.

During the last four decades the United States has witnessed first the emergence and then the disappearance of civil litigation as a topic of partisan debate in national politics. Following two centuries in which neither party thought the topic worth mention, in the last decades of the twentieth and first of the twenty-first century, both parties made it part of their agendas. Republican candidates and presidents denounced litigation as a blight; Democratic candidates and presidents embraced it as a panacea. This Essay traces the emergence of this issue, the apparent oddness of the two parties' stances toward civil litigation, and the ways in which both parties chose to ignore salient characteristics of modern civil litigation—the unspoken truths of my title. Finally, I'll tentatively suggest some reasons for the disappearance of this issue—at least temporarily—from the political scene.

International audience [Demographic rhythms of Germany and France have been very different for two centuries. In the nineteenth century, the size of the population of Germany joined and surpassed that of France, which had long been the highest in Europe. After the two world wars, the more intense the French demographic renewal was accompanied by a genuine economic revolution, allowing France to compete with the "German miracle." Today, the demographic situation of Germany and France remain strong differences although each country has a similar process: the aging of the population.] ; Repris in extenso dans Problèmes économiques, 19 juillet 1989. Les rythmes démographiques de l'Allemagne et de la France ont été fort différents depuis deux siècles. Au XIXe siècle, l'effectif de la population de l'Allemagne a rejoint et dépassé celui de la France qui avait été longtemps le plus élevé d'Europe. Après les deux guerres mondiales, l'intensité plus grande du renouveau démographique français s'est accompagnée d'une véritable révolution économique, permettant à la France de rivaliser avec le « miracle allemand ». Aujourd'hui, les situations démographiques de l'Allemagne et de la France conservent de fortes divergences même si chaque pays connaît un processus semblable : le vieillissement de la population.

With the exception of aboriginal protourban structures, canary island urban development is relatively recent. This paper tries to find an approach to a model of the insular urban system, during the two centuries inmediately after the start of the Conquest. The canary island urban system, has been a consecuence of a Conquest of an insular territory, and of administrative formulae for incorporation and colonization, which reflect the political, socioeconomic, interinsular tensions, that make for the oscillation of the hegemonic primacy as between the main towns within the region. ; Si se prescinde de las estructuras protourbanas aborígenes, el urbanismo canario-como el americano- es relativamente reciente. El presente artículo trata de encontrar una aproximación al modelo de sistema urbano insular en los casi dos siglos que suceden tras el inicio de la conquista. El sistema urbano canario ha sido consecuencia de una adaptación a un territorio insular y a las formas administrativas de incorporación y colonización, ejemplo de las tensiones políticas, económicas y sociales interinsulares, que hacen oscilar la hegemonía de las ciudades principales en ese momento. Una red primaria de asentamientos estratégicos, agrícolas y ribereños, actuarán como soporte sobre la que evolucionará la ocupación espacial del territorio.

Economic theory has undergone a very deep transformation during the last forty years. Its method and its tools of analysis have evolved dramatically. The standards by which theoretical statements are now appreciated are far more demanding, especially from a formal point of view, than was the case before World War II. Precision and logical validity in raising questions and problems have increased as well. The set of hypotheses necessary to deal with the usual issues of political economy has been made more explicit, allowing everyone to have a more clearer interpretation of what has been done in the different fields. The content and the relevance of the concept of equilibrium have been strongly affected by these transformations. This paper, obviously, does not attempt to give an account of all these changes. It will focus on just one consequence of this evolution: the relevance of the concept of equilibrium in dealing with the traditional question of the working of the market, the central institution in our economies. To put the matter very briefly, the question addressed here concerns the place of equilibrium in economic theory: does mainstream economics allow for another theoretical reference? For two centuries at least, equilibrium was referred to as a particular situation towards which the market mechanism was supposed to drive the economy. An important issue was to prove this conjecture. Whereas mainstream economists (Smith, Ricardo, Stuart Mill, Marshall and Walras) endeavored to prove the stability of the market, critical authors tried to show that certain fundamental flaws of the market mechanism make instability and crisis the rule in a capitalist economy. Among the factors said to be responsible for this result, the monetary character of the economy seems the most important (as was emphasized by Boisguilbert, Sismondi and Marx in the past and by Keynes in our time).

What happened to the tremendous legacy of juridical knowledge left behind in Italy in the 6th century? Into what labyrinth did it plunge only to re-emerge after the silent age of the early Middle Ages into the light of day, and effectively come to shape the renewal of the jurisprudence at the beginning of the 12th century? One-and-a-half centuries after the fanciful writings of Hermann Fitting, legal historians are still looking for the answers to these questions. Considering the new information we have (especially coming from the paleographical research), this paper re-examines the existence as well as the activities of the school of Rome both during the Justinian Age and in the two centuries thereafter. The aim of this essay is to verify whether Rome, during the very early Middle Ages, continued to represent a centre of juridical culture. According to the hypothesis developed in this contribution, Rome – at that time – not only played a very important role with regard to the material conservation of the Justinian's libri legales, but also in the initial establishment of the new (i. e., Justinian) imperial law in the West and creation of its image as a significant juridical centre. The absence of such a centre as well as its wide-spread image would truly make the Bolognese renovatio appear "miraculous" and very difficult to explain. After Justinian, the 7th and 8th centuries can truly be characterised as "silent" in the history of Roman law in the West. However, by studying the medieval manuscript tradition, in particular, that of the Institutiones and the Novellae, we can gather together a series of elements helping us to clarify the situation. Also quite useful is an examination of the manuscript tradition of the Collatio legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum. Through the spread and use of these Late Antique works, we can see how – in conjunction with the actions of the papacy – Rome, toward the end of the 8th century, returned to being a centre of world politics and – given that law follows politics – of the legal culture.

This is the first work to consider the Japanese warriors from the "intangible culture" perspective. The critical analysis of this intangible culture is applied primarily to the hereditary warrior houses of the pre-Tokugawa ages and to those of the Tokugawa era (1600-1868). Particular attention is paid to the forms of organization and styles of curriculum in warrior training entities and schools of military arts. In addition, a swordsman, Yamaoka Tesshū (1836-1888), is used as a case study to show that in the Bakumatsu period, there were men who strove to resurrect pre-Tokugawa practices and values in response to what they saw as a warrior culture that no longer had any utility in real-life combat and, instead, had been degraded into a form of sport or empty display. The study of Tenshinshō-den Katori Shintō-ryū, the oldest school of military arts in Japan, along with a detailed analysis of the life and thought of Yamaoka (especially in terms of his hitherto unrecognized but pivotal role in the bloodless surrender of Edo castle during the Boshin war of 1868-69) allows us to see warriors committed to intense physical and mental training in the art of killing but whose primary goal was to preserve human life and avoid unnecessary violence (a concept known as "the life-giving sword"). By this, the thesis attempts to overturn the domination in Japanese history and popular culture of the image of "the bellicose warrior" represented by such figures as Miyamoto Musashi. It also looks closely at several groups of commoners such as Rōshigumi who in the 1860s were sanctioned by the Bakufu to wear weapons and participate in armed conflicts; the thesis argues that the co-existence of the two-sworded warriors and the two-sworded commoners late in the Tokugawa era is directly responsible for our distorted historical understanding of the bushi and its exaggerated link with violence. The thesis also explores the present-day use of what Japanese government, businesses, and educators claim to be the values and practices of the ...