We Africans are a people who like to wrestle and it is time for politician, artist and critic to tie their wrappers firmly and prepare for the bout. The organizers of the festival succeeded in bringing together these three traditional enemies, all whetting their palms in eager anticipation of the match. But it never took place. Instead, official delegation after official delegation spent their time trying to convince fellow Africans that their particular country has a culture or that many centuries ago a national literature was in fact started. The time devoted to government policy statements on culture made the festival sound like a meeting of the O.A.U., this time with a very restless audience of artists.
In the Caribbean Archipelago of San Andres, Colombia, a minority creole language, known as Islander, have coexisted with Colombian Spanish for almost two centuries. However, since the declaration of San Andres island as a free-duty port in 1953, the commercial expansion of the Archipelago has brought about the imposition of Spanish in formal settings (Bartens, 2013), and consequently the preference of Spanish in written visual signs. In contrast, Valenciano (Valencia, Spain), another minority language in contact with Spanish as a national language, seems to enjoy more official recognition in terms of public display of written signs. This study examines the extent to which Islander and Valenciano are represented in the public sphere through the geolocalization of written public signs (Barni & Bagna, 2009) in comparable domains and settings: beaches and urban centers. Over 1200 pictures (N=1244) were geotagged and coded to map the spatial location of the languages occurring publicly, and the specific factors that allowed their distribution in both locations. The analysis shows Islander creole and English clustered into specific locations in the islands of Old Providence and San Andres. Conversely, Spanish seems to be the language of choice in the Archipelago. On the other hand, Valenciano has a more stable situation in terms of public display of written signs in touristic and urban settings. Despite having similar language laws, only Valenciano enjoys greater governmental recognition in the public sphere, a situation that might be emulated in the Archipelago. Additional accounts from public officials also offer an explanation about the implicit language policies of the official institutions and the de facto language practices of the islands. Contrasting these two language contact scenarios could offer potential solutions for the implementation of linguistic policies, and thus, the preservation of the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Islander communities of the Archipelago.
Ukrainian lands in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have been in proximity of great geopolitical changes several times. During that time the Ukrainian nation – due to various factors – encountered a number of "windows of opportunity" for achieving the realization of dreams about independence and national sovereignty. The author identified in the period considered four "general moments," of which two have been completed successfully. The first of these occurred in 1990–1991, when for the first time in modern history, Ukrainians managed to achieve a lasting and relatively stable independence. The second of the "moments" – still unresolved – are events that began in the late autumn of 2013. The process, called "Revolution of Dignity", represents a new quality in the history of the Ukrainian nation, therefore, that the Ukrainians have to defend the status quo (independence, territorial integrity, sovereignty, etc.) but not to seek to achieve an independent being. The analysis leads to the conclusion that the ability of Ukrainians to achieve and maintain independence is largely a function of the relative power of the Russian state as measured with respect to the shape and quality of international relations.
The Gina Miller judgment of the United Kingdom Supreme Court will be famous for its protection of the rule of law against an overreaching executive. But it should also be remembered for affirming the systematic nature of the British unwritten constitution. The Supreme Court rejected the older theory of the constitution, on which some of the government's submissions relied, according to which the British constitution is based on the political fact of parliamentary sovereignty (or an equivalent 'rule of recognition') and is for that reason different from that of all other states. This was the view outlined by A. V. Dicey and endorsed by the British legal community for almost a century. The Supreme Court majority (and it is possible that the minority does too) rejected Dicey's constructions and outlined a different theory of the constitution, widely described as the 'common law' theory. For this view, the UK's constitution is higher law made by the conscious decisions of a legislature to create principles of fundamental significance. Joining the EU was a constitutional change brought about by parliament in this way. For this reason, withdrawal from the EU must also be a decision of the legislature by way of an act of parliament. The Supreme Court considers the unwritten constitution to be a system of principles whose origins lie in the legal transformation of the United Kingdom three centuries ago by way of the Bill of Rights 1688, the Act of Union 1707 and other constitutional statutes that created the higher law of the constitution.
Over the last two hundred years phases of overproduction and of scarcity in academic careers have recurred with a remarkable regularity. The cyclical development depends on the complex interaction between the varying determinants of growth and the varying conditions of social recruitment for specific careers. If professional prospects are favourable, careers will open up into educationally uncultivated strata, and if the prospects worsen, its recruitment basis closes a little further down again. The interplay of attracting effects (pull) and deterrence effects (push) produce the remarkable long-term pulsation of student streams in the vocational subject areas. German data from theology, law, medicine and higher education suggest that political control has effected little change in the cycle. Academic qualifications and limits on entry have always been introduced at the times of excess supply, and the history of structural change in German education is linked to these phases. ; peerReviewed
Professional secrecy of doctors became an issue of considerable medico-legal and political debate in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in both Germany and England, although the legal preconditions for this debate were quite different in the two countries. While in Germany medical confidentiality was a legal obligation and granted in court, no such statutory recognition of doctors' professional secrecy existed in England. This paper is a comparative analysis of medical secrecy in three key areas - divorce trials, venereal disease and abortion - in both countries. Based on sources from the period between c.1870 and 1939, our paper shows how doctors tried to define the scope of professional secrecy as an integral part of their professional honour in relation to important matters of public health.
The role of the Vintana, as a dynasty at the service of the battlefields and defensive needs of a centralized and autocratic Empire in the phase of stability as the Austrian one was between the XVI and XVII centuries, is emblematic to understand the defense approach carried out on the border land on behalf of the Habsburgs. Such intervention would like to describe, with the opening up of the great quantity and unpublished archive documents found, the Corsus honorum of such military architect family. Numerous documents have been found at the Steiermärkisches Landesarchiv of Graz and others in several Friulian archives. The Vintana participated in numerous fortifications within the Innerosterreich, drafting reports and proposing renovating, enlarging and modernizing interventions of fortified buildings in a modern way. With the presented documentation, moreover, the diversities are also pointed out and points of contact between two political and administrative realities such as the Austrian and the Venetian one, analyzing the approach supported by both towards the concept of Borders; Such definition, in the Austrian environment will have a much different meaning than the Venetian one, or rather almost inexistent as dividing line or "respect zone".
This paper constitutes a part of deeper research whose object of study are the former inhabitants of the city of Buenos Aires. Men and women come in spotlight when studying the basic needs of the population such as job, housing and family. With the passing of time the success or failure in the reproduction and settling (unwanted pregnancy, lack of stable income) as well as structural problems (high infant mortality rates, militarization) caused a series of adaptations in families that would lead to the acquisition of particular characteristics. Although census permit to identify population; in order to investigate the causes, changes and adaptations in the family forms in time I have used two analytical categories: amparo and desamparo. As well as a crossed genealogical model of analysis among the homes considered in the population records (1833 and 1855)
Except royal castles in major Norwegian towns, only two stone castles were built by Norwegian aristocrats in the High Middle Ages. All other aristocrats lived in wooden buildings. Of these only Lagmannsstova at Aga in Hardanger remains. It has been attributed to the appeal court judge Sigurd Brynjulffson, though to have been constructed at the end of the thirteenth century as one unique building. However, investigations show that the remaining hall made up less than onethird of a building complex containing two halls, a chapel, kitchen and living quarters, all built at the first half of the thirteenth century. Investigations also show that the powers of the appeal court judge were drastically expanded at the same time, not at least by the Norwegian Code of the realm of 1274. By relating judicial powers and manor house, we get a quite different image of the Norwegian aristocracy and bureaucracy in the High Middle Ages than the popular one of an egalitarian peasant society.
In the first chapter of the paper we elaborate on the attitude towards the Other in the European Union by discussing two adversative yet simultaneous processes taking place in the EU. The first tendency is a legacy from the centuries-lasting model of European unification against certain important Others. The second one refers to the aspiration of the supra-national European project to encourage in an unprecedented manner the co-existence with the otherness. We argue that this ambivalence results from the fact that the transformation of the attitude towards the otherness takes place with different tempo in the different social spheres. In the second chapter we develop further the reflection on the EU attitude towards the Other by focusing on the East European Other. We discuss the normative and de facto application of the European values both in the West and in the East part of the continent. In the last chapter we articulate two separate discourses framing the European values. The first one refers to the essentialist approach looking for a metaphysical reasoning of their universality by developing the common culture, history and spirit rhetoric. The second reading of the European values presents them in a more postmodern and debatable way and offers a mechanism for reconciling the heterogenic East-West European society.
This paper sheds light on the global migration patterns of the past 40 years, and produces migration projections for the 21st century, for two skill groups, and for all relevant pairs of countries. To do this, we build a simple model of the world economy, and we parameterize it to match the economic and socio-demographic characteristics of the world in the year 2010. We conduct a backcasting exercise which demonstrates that our model fits the past trends in international migration very well, and that historical trends were mostly governed by demographic changes. We then describe a set of migration projections for the 21st century. In line with backcasts, our world migration prospects and emigration rates from developing countries are mainly governed by socio-demographic changes: they are virtually insensitive to the technological environment. As far as OECD countries are concerned, we predict a highly robust increase in immigration pressures in general (from 12 in 2010 to 17-19% in 2050 and 25-28% in 2100), and in European immigration in particular (from 15% in 2010 to 23-25% in 2050 and 36-39% in 2100). Using development policies to curb these pressures requires triggering unprecedented economic takeoffs in migrants countries of origin. Increasing migration is therefore a likely phenomenon for the 21st century, and this raises societal and political challenges for most industrialized countries.
This paper sheds light on the global migration patterns of the past 40 years, and produces migration projections for the 21st century, for two skill groups, and for all relevant pairs of countries. To do this, we build a simple model of the world economy, and we parameterize it to match the economic and socio-demographic characteristics of the world in the year 2010. We conduct a backcasting exercise which demonstrates that our model fits the past trends in international migration very well, and that historical trends were mostly governed by demographic changes. We then describe a set of migration projections for the 21st century. In line with backcasts, our world migration prospects and emigration rates from developing countries are mainly governed by socio-demographic changes: they are virtually insensitive to the technological environment. As far as OECD countries are concerned, we predict a highly robust increase in immigration pressures in general (from 12 in 2010 to 17-19% in 2050 and 25-28% in 2100), and in European immigration in particular (from 15% in 2010 to 23-25% in 2050 and 36-39% in 2100). Using development policies to curb these pressures requires triggering unprecedented economic takeoffs in migrants countries of origin. Increasing migration is therefore a likely phenomenon for the 21st century, and this raises societal and political challenges for most industrialized countries.
Canon Law in the 12th and 13th centuries has often been associated with the growth of the papal monarchy. Without denying such connection, this paper aims to suggest that it brought about elements that helped to challenge the central place of the pope in Christendom. First, in broad lines, the use of Matthew 16,18 (Tu es Petrus) and the Translation of the Empire by Gratian, Innocent III and Innocent IV, which evolved to support the increasing authority of the pope in temporal affairs, are discussed. Some aspects of this use that could give, and eventually gave, shape to a doctrine on the position of the pope, are then pointed out. ; El derecho canónico de los siglos XII y XIII es generalmente asociado con el alza de la monarquía papal. Sin negar esta conexión, este trabajo se permite, con todo, sugerir que el derecho canónico brindó elementos que ayudaron a desafiar el rol central que el Papa tenía en la Cristiandad. En primer lugar, en líneas generales, se discuten el uso de Mateo 16,18 (Tu es Petrus) y la traducción del Imperio de Graciano y las figuras de Inocencio III e Inocencio IV, elementos que contribuyeron para apoyar la autoridad creciente del Papa en las cuestiones temporales. Luego, se señalan ciertos aspectos de este uso que podía dar, y eventualmente dio, forma a una doctrina sobre la posición papal.
Canon Law in the 12th and 13th centuries has often been associated with the growth of the papal monarchy. Without denying such connection, this paper aims to suggest that it brought about elements that helped to challenge the central place of the pope in Christendom. First, in broad lines, the use of Matthew 16,18 (Tu es Petrus) and the Translation of the Empire by Gratian, Innocent III and Innocent IV, which evolved to support the increasing authority of the pope in temporal affairs, are discussed. Some aspects of this use that could give, and eventually gave, shape to a doctrine on the position of the pope, are then pointed out. ; El derecho canónico de los siglos XII y XIII es generalmente asociado con el alza de la monarquía papal. Sin negar esta conexión, este trabajo se permite, con todo, sugerir que el derecho canónico brindó elementos que ayudaron a desafiar el rol central que el Papa tenía en la Cristiandad. En primer lugar, en líneas generales, se discuten el uso de Mateo 16,18 (Tu es Petrus) y la traducción del Imperio de Graciano y las figuras de Inocencio III e Inocencio IV, elementos que contribuyeron para apoyar la autoridad creciente del Papa en las cuestiones temporales. Luego, se señalan ciertos aspectos de este uso que podía dar, y eventualmente dio, forma a una doctrina sobre la posición papal.
This article investigates the intellectual production of Jewish authors influenced by Averroes in the 14th and 15th Centuries in northern Spain and southern France. The primary objective is to determine the main features of Jewish Averroism in this period, and to understand it within its socio-historical context. The outcomes suggest that there was a relationship between the new social and political trends toward democratization and reconciliation in the heart of Jewish communities on one hand, and the growing interest in Averroes' original works on the other. Original here means the works that are not commentaries or summaries of other works. ; This article investigates the intellectual production of Jewish authors influenced by Averroes in the 14th and 15th Centuries in northern Spain and southern France. The primary objective is to determine the main features of Jewish Averroism in this period, and to understand it within its socio-historical context. The outcomes suggest that there was a relationship between the new social and political trends toward democratization and reconciliation in the heart of Jewish communities on one hand, and the growing interest in Averroes' original works on the other. Original here means the works that are not commentaries or summaries of other works.
