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The American Military is widely viewed as a pioneer in providing equal opportunity for its uniformed members. From the 1948 Executive Order signed by President Harry S. Truman that formally began the long process of racial integration to more recent admission of women into most military occupational specialties, the Military Services have compiled a record of providing equal opportunity that often exceeds the progress of civilian society. That record has been achieved only through constant effort and self-examination, and it will be maintained and improved only through continuing effort. It is in this spirit of self- examination and improvement that this study was undertaken. The study reviews the key stages of officer career progression: recruiting, commission-ing, training, assignment, evaluation, promotion, and retention. It is limited to active duty commissioned officers in the four military branches of the Department of Defense, and examined data collected through 1997. The study employed several approaches to analyzing the career progression of minority and female officers, including trend analysis, statistical modeling, and focus groups and interviews. This report sets out the findings of the study and suggests a number of actions that could be taken to improve the process of providing equal opportunity to minority members and women in the officer corps. ; Office of the Under Secretary of Defense Personnel and Readiness

This article addresses the dynamics of changing gender relations. Drawing on the theoretical framework of gender relations and research on women in male-dominated organizations, the article analyses the experiences of women officers in the Swedish Armed Forces. The article focuses on experiences of including as well as excluding practices and the processes of negotiating gender boundaries. The article contributes to the field by highlighting the importance of changing perceptions of gender, showing that the officers' perceptions of gender change with time, age and rank. This change is fundamental for understanding the way the women attempt to negotiate more equal gender relations.

Abstract. The extent to which differences exist across race/ethnicity, sex and service group in rates of retention and promotion of military officers is examined. Three separate statistical models capture differences in the possible effects of race/ethnicity on variation in retention and promotion rates. Ordinary least squares regression (OLS) was used to estimate the models employing cohort data from the period 1979–1988. All analyses were performed separately for men and women. The models exhibited greater explanatory power for men than for women. The empirical results were used to develop predictions of the numbers of individuals that will be retained from each cohort during the next decade. Predicted distributions of officers across grades were also generated for each cohort. Results indicate that while retention rates for minorities appear high, little change in the demographic composition of higher grades is likely if current recruitment, and promotion practices continue. Thus, programs designed to increase the numbers of women and ethnic minorities in the officer corps should focus on recruitment rather than retention. Lastly, recommendations for future research to expand and support these preliminary analyses are presented.

Through questionnaires and phone interviews, the current study provides a preliminary look at the strategies employed by women correction officers (COs) when responding to volatile situations with male inmates. Results suggest most incidents do not elicit significant gender differences in aggression. Where differences exist, they are in the opposite direction than is commonly assumed—that is, women COs tend to be more aggressive than the men. The study concludes that occupational socialization and the demands of the job account for the similarities between genders and the differences result from the gender-specific barriers confronting women officers, and calls for further research.

Abstract
Women bring many benefits to policing but represent only 14% of sworn police in the United States. Researchers have examined different recruitment strategies, yet few have sought insight from women officers themselves. We explored women officers' perspectives on recruiting and retaining more women in policing. Using semi-structured interviews, we asked 40 current and retired women officers how police agencies can better target women to increase their representation. Responses were analyzed using open coding techniques. Participants noted difficulty hiring amid a larger police staffing crisis. They also discussed the structure and culture of police work as barriers to the recruitment and retention of women and suggested outreach and mentorship as strategies to increase integration. These findings have policy and practice implications related to increasing the integration and entrance of women in policing.

The profession of Law Enforcement (LE) is struggling to redefine itself in the changing political and social climate of the 21st century. Amid the plethora of challenges facing the profession is the fight to draw representation from women to participate and advance in the profession. While all LE officers entering and advancing in the profession face challenges, women have the added obstacles of sexual harassment, lack of mentoring, being immersed in a male dominated culture, and tokenism. These identified barriers, although difficult, can be addressed through a conscious and unified effort of mentoring programs, specialized training for women and participation by LE women in professional organizations geared toward the uniqueness of their role in the profession. Although most law enforcement leaders recognize the obvious gender imbalance in the profession, opponents argue that providing women with specialized training and mentoring may, in fact, reinforce the notion that women are not ready for a career in a field dominated by men. Questions of why portions of already slim budgets should be dedicated to such a small percentage of the work force are raised. However, future driven leaders recognize the potential cost of not addressing the barriers women face, both to LE agencies and their communities. Progressive LE agencies and communities should strive to offer a variety of programs to assist with recruitment and advancement of female law enforcement officers. These programs will benefit the women officers and the communities they serve because of the unique strengths and perspective women bring to the profession.