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The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.

The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.

The article describes the situation of urban mobility in Europe in the last 15 years. In consideration of the increasing transport's flow from 20th Century until today, traffic and transport obtain a high level of congestion that is not more possible to effort. This congestion first of all concerns the so called "tyre mobility", generating two negative effects: -car accidents are in continuous growth, with high costs in terms of human-lives and permanent damages; -our streets became in the last 15 years very dangerous. To reach one point from another in a town is not only dangerous, but also takes an increasing amount of time. People called "weak customers" (children, old people, pregnant women with babies, temporarily disabled persons) are the principal victims of this situation. In this article we will also explain the newest data about transport accidents and mortality in the last ten years. This researches show how mortality rate in the last ten year is constantly decreasing, while in the last 50 years, from 1950 to 2000, it has always grown. And this is a positive item that lead us to place the bases for the future. In this direction goes the so called "White Paper" submitted by the UE on 12 September 2001: "European transport policy for 2010: time to decide". The Commission has proposed 60 or so measures to develop a transport system capable of shifting the balance between modes of transport, revitalising the railways, promoting transport by sea and inland waterway and controlling the growth in air transport. In this way, the White Paper fits in with the sustainable development strategy adopted by the European Council in Gothenburg on June 2001, introducing the concept of the trans-European network (TEN). Concerning this situation, we also highlight that FIABA has been founded in order to pull down the cultural and physical barriers created by isolation, marginalization, and social unfairness. Let's think about the birth of a human being: mothers and their children are part of the environment and it should be able to hold them. An environment that is suitable to growing up children is respectful of people's elementar needs. We have to cultivate our sensitivity in order to prevent the appearing of new barriers, being it architectural features or not. This argument is strictly connected with the reorganization of our urban spaces trough the so called PUT (Urban Traffic Plans) and the National Plan. We also never forget that a convenient, universal-accessible environment help us increasing the value of our time and our lives. If we can have back the value of our environment we can increase the inner value of ourselves. In conclusion, architectural features that are commonly found in apartment blocks and cemeteries make clear that the planning wasn't for everyone. FIABA deeply wants to develop a different awareness of mobility problems, in the hope it can trigger off a new way of planning. We want, in the next future, that every building and every road will be thought without architectural features, in order to simplify everyday life and to assure us and our relatives the accesses. ; FIABA Onlus (Fondo Italiano Abbattimento Barriere Architettoniche) nasce nel 2001 con l'intento, tra gli altri, di costruire città accessibili a tutti, così da renderle più vivibili e sicure dal punto di vista della mobilità e della fruizione degli spazi. La sicurezza negli spostamenti è infatti oggi fortemente a rischio: a causa del traffico crescente e della cattiva progettazione delle strade e degli spazi cittadini in generale, muoversi in città è sempre più fonte di pericoli e incidenti, non solo per i così detti "utenti deboli" della strada (persone disabili, donne in stato di gravidanza o con passeggino, persone anziane o in generale con momentanee difficoltà motorie), ma in generale per tutte le persone che quotidianamente effettuano spostamenti. Costruire città ed ambienti più accessibili significherebbe dunque rendere più fluida la viabilità su gomma, ed agevolare di conseguenza le persone che si muovono quotidianamente a piedi o in bicicletta, riducendo allo stesso momento il numero annuo di incidenti. Come indica il Libro Bianco - La politica europea dei trasporti fino al 2010, emanato dall' UE: "La congestione, i problemi ambientali e gli incidenti legati ai trasporti aumentano continuamente e penalizzano sia l'utenza che l'economia." Prendendo in considerazione queste linee guida, che si prefiggono la diminuzione del 50% delle vittime di incidenti stradali entro il 2010, l'articolo descrive l'impegno del "settore sicurezza stradale di FIABA", creato per sostenere diverse azioni organizzate a tale scopo: Osservatorio Parlamentare Fruibilità OPAF in collaborazione con l'ordine degli architetti, campagna "Siamo tutti pedoni", campagna "Vacanze con i fiocchi", partecipazione del Presidente Giuseppe Trieste alla Commissione dei "Saggi" per la stesura del Piano Strategico della Mobilità Sostenibile del Comune di Roma, divulgazione e analisi di dati riguardanti mobilità ed incidenti. Il contributo riporta inoltre alcuni accenni di buone pratiche relative agli ultimi Piani di viabilità e di sicurezza a livello provinciale e nazionale, analizzando metodi e soluzioni adottate per risolvere i problemi che si presentano in questo ambito: maggiore affidabilità dei dati statistici in possesso, introduzione di sistemi e metodi di controllo e fluidificazione del traffico, miglioramento della mobilità e accessibilità agli spazi.

Der Beitrag zeichnet die Entwicklung des juristischen Austauschs mit Japan der letzten 100 Jahren nach. Ausgangspunkt für die deutsch-japanischen Rechtsbeziehungen waren die sogenannten "ungleichen Verträge". Die erste Orientierung der japanischen Juristen der Meiji-Zeit erfolgte zwar am französischen Recht, deutsche Rechtsberater waren damals jedoch auch als Lehrer und Legislatoren in Japan engagiert.Der Beitrag geht auch auf den sogenannten Kodifikationsstreit ein, bevor er sich dem Meiji-Zivilgesetz und dem Handelsgesetz, sowie schließlich dem Phänomen der Theorienrezeption zuwendet.(Die Redaktion) ; The legal exchange between Germany and Japan has a long tradition that persists even today, as the title of this article suggests. The orginator of this special relationship was an American, Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He was commander of the squadron which brought the self-imposed seclusion of Japan to an end. In the following years the diplomatically inexperienced representatives of the Tokugawa shogunate signed disadvantageous treaties with several Western powers. They instituted a system of extraterritoriality that provided for the subjugation of Western residents to the laws of their own consular courts instead of the Japanese law system. When the new Meiji government tried to get these "Unequal Treaties" revised, the Western powers refused. Instead, they set up the requirement of "modernization" (i.e. "Westernization") of the Japanese legal system as a precondition for the abolition of consular jurisdiction and extraterritoriality.This imposed reception of Western law was an incredible task. The main reason was simply that the Japanese legal tradition differed to the greatest possible extent from the developments in the West. Prior to the mid-nineteenth century there was not even a word or an understanding of an individual "right". This new word (kenri) had to be coined among many others to establish a modern legal terminology. The great Japanese pioneer in this field was Rinshô Mitsukuri, who translated the whole Code civil in the first Meiji decade. This also shows that Japan first looked to France to enact modern codes. The French legal advisor Gustave Boissonade was charged with the draft of the penal code and the code of criminal procedure. He was also charged with the draft of a civil code in 1880.However, two years earlier, the Japanese government had engaged Hermann Roesler, the first German legal advisor. This year marked an important watershed because from then on all other fundamental laws were essentially inspired by German models. The "German decade" began. The reasons for this change of legal course are not known. Presumably there was a close connection with the drafting of the Meiji constitution. It was to be based on the Prussian model since the Meiji leaders regarded this authoritarian kind of constitution as best suited for Japan. Heavily engaged in the drafting process were the two German legal advisors Hermann Roesler and Albert Mosse. Roesler was also a key figure in setting up the "Old Commercial Code", whereas Mosse is also well known as the compiler of the draft laws and systems for local government.Further on, the code of civil procedure was mainly drafted by the German legal advisor Hermann Techow, closely following the German model. The Code on the Constitution of the Courts, written by the German legal advisor Otto Rudorff, was also a close adaptation of the German pattern. The outcome of the famous "Postponement Controversy" (1887-92) led in the end to a "Germanization" of the Japanese civil code. Proponents of English law attacked the Boissonade Code ("Old Civil Code) for being drafted in great haste, for not being in accord with the "Old Commercial Code", for its disregard of native customs and for technical deficiency. They were backed by conservative forces, whereas the already promulgated code was defended by proponents of French law and by liberal politicians. More for the sake of completeness, they criticized the "Old Commercial Code", too. In the end the new parliament voted for postponement of both codifications in order to revise them. This revision meant drafting a completely new code. This time it was a "code from the Japanese for the Japanese", for the draft committee consisted exclusively of Japanese jurists. The three main compilers, Nobushige Hozumi, Kenjirô Ume and Masa'akira Tomii, paid close attention to German civil law but also to many other models. In the end, the Meiji civil code set in force in the summer of 1898 was really a "fruit of comparative jurisprudence".The following twenty years marked the heyday of German law in Japan. In order to deal with the implemented foreign law, Japanese jurists looked to German legal dogma. They were impressed by the self-assuredness of the German jurists of these days who were confident that they could solve any legal problem within the precincts of a closed system. Typical for this era was this saying among Japanese jurists: "Any law other than German law is no law."Later the Japanese legal world overcame this single-minded orientation on German law when they shifted their attention to the social reality. After World War II the Japanese legal system came under the strong influence of the Anglo-American legal system. Nevertheless, Japanese legal experts remained interested in the development of German law. In contrast, German jurists showed almost no interest in Japanese law until the 1980s, a phenomenon criticized as a "one-way road in comparative law between Japan and Germany". However, the situation changed when the economic success of Japan became apparent.

The transfer system was created in order to control player movement between football clubs and has existed since the late nineteenth century. During the negotiation of today's transfer rules FIFA, UEFA and the Commission found that a breach of contract during the season could upset the balance of competition and therefore should be restricted. It was considered necessary to strengthen the contractual stability and to apply a special rule to preserve the regularity and proper functioning of competition. This was done by the means of a provision stipulating that a football player only can be registered to play with a national association during one of the two registration periods per year, generally known as the transfer windows. Sport has never been included in the formal structures of the European Union and the regulation of sport has instead materialized through verdicts from the European Court of Justice. One of the most influential statements emerging from the Court is that sport is subject to Community law in so far it constitutes an economic activity. Consequently, if the activity is economic there is a risk that it infringes EU law. The purpose of this master thesis is to examine the FIFA transfer window system and to determine whether it violates Article 39 and/or Article 81 EC. The transfer windows, a regulation strengthened by the ECJ in the case of Lehtonen, restrict the ability of players to seek alternative employment and could therefore be regarded as a violation of the free movement of workers. In order to trigger the Treaty provisions guarding the right of freedom of movement the person in question must be a national of a Member State of the European Union and the activity must have a territorial dimension beyond the borders of a single Member State of the European Union. The person in question must also be engaged in some kind of economic activity. It is, however, clear that football players who are members of the European Union and are applying for a job in another Member State, and are performing at a certain level, fulfil these requirements. Footballers should therefore be considered as workers within the meaning of Article 39 EC and the prohibition of discrimination contained in that article which catches non-discriminatory private collective measures, such as the transfer system, invented by regulatory bodies like FIFA and UEFA. When considering the FIFA "windows system" it is clear that it is liable of restricting the ability of players to seek alternative employment in another Member State and should therefore be regarded as a violation of Article 39 EC. Nevertheless, restricted transfer periods have been found by the ECJ to be objectively justified as having sporting benefits in the Belgian Basketball league. It is, however, likely that the "window system", as it operates in European football, goes beyond what is necessary to achieve team and player contract stability since it is too restrictive and somewhat redundant. Consequently, the FIFA transfer windows do not comply with the requirements of the principle of proportionality and should therefore, if challenged, be regarded as a violation of Article 39 EC. The use of transfer windows in European football can also be considered to be an issue for competition law and in particular Article 81 EC. The article prohibits all agreements between undertakings that restrict competition and affect trade between Member States and has the objective to protect consumers, enhance their welfare and to facilitate the creation of a single European market. The ECJ has, however, acknowledged a certain type of sporting rule that, even though it restricts competition, will be granted immunity from Article 81 EC. The FIFA "windows system" should not be regarded as such a rule since it does not fulfil the required conditions. The transfer windows do little for the competitive balance within the European football. It may be argued that it preserves the appeal and the unpredictability of the finishing stages of a championship. However, they also prevent clubs from developing their economic activity and restrict the free play of the market forces of supply and demand. Furthermore, the "windows system" hinders certain clubs from raising the quality of their sporting performance since clubs in minor leagues with a closed window are losing their best players to clubs in a better league with an open window, without being able to replace them. All of this affects the small and economically weak clubs and strengthens the position of the financially strong clubs. As a result a few strong clubs will, contrary to the best interest of consumers, continue to dominate European football. The FIFA regulation of transfer windows is therefore likely to fall under Article 81(1) EC. It is unlikely that the pro-competitive benefits of the FIFA transfer windows outweigh its restrictive effects since it is improbable that they would be considered the least restrictive means of creating these benefits. Subsequently, the FIFA "windows system" would not qualify for an exemption under Article 81(3) EC and should, if challenged, be void under Article 81(2) EC.

The paper looks back at the history of communication analysing this historical issue in the context of social structures and social institutions. In terms of chronological limits, the research attempts to date back to the period of the 16th-17th centuries; in respect of regional borders, it encompasses the Duchy of Biržai (hereinafter referred to as the "DB"), whereas in terms of socio-structural aspects, the study attempts to analyse the society of the Duchy. The subject of the thesis is the society of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the 16th-17th centuries; the issue under analysis is the structure of this society and the social communication maintaining it. It is attempted to identify the types of contacts binding the afore-mentioned local society, the origins of those links, the manner of manifestation of the social contacts within the DB community, which were common to the entire Grand Duchy of Lithuania (hereinafter referred to as the "GDL"), and the specific contacts inherent to this domain only as well as the social formations created by these contacts apart from those determined by the estate-based society. The paper seeks to identify how far-reaching could have been and actually were the horizons of the contacts of the DB residents at the level of Biržai domain, the level of the GDL and the international level. The research of the contacts maintained should be useful in answering the question of how the centres of public communication (estate, church, castle, town, etc) pursued their activities and what inherent characteristics defined them. Finally, the analysis of social communication may provide background for discussing cultural contacts and interactions in future. Major problematic concepts employed in the research are communication and local society. The aim of the thesis is the analysis of communication of the DB society, which operated in the context of immediate institutional and social interaction. Following the remaining sources, the attempt is made to reconstruct the social structure of the DB and the social relations supporting it. The aspect of communication is chosen for the analysis as the manifestation of local processes evolving within the DB. The paper seeks to identify to what extent a certain communicative code of the DB society, i.e. a set of rules and mechanisms, which is standardized for that local community and thus allows the coexistence of its social groups and their adequate adjustment to one another, can be identified. The communicative code links all major communicative elements – the channel (forms), context (environment, settings) and participants. The sources do not allow the identification of the entire content and meanings of social communication but enables the reconstruction of its forms and structure. The relevancy of research of the society and communication of the Duchy of Biržai in the reign of the Radvilas during the period from 1589 to 1655 can be defined on the basis of at least four aspects. In a conceptual sense, the research is relevant as the venture in historical regionalistics oriented towards the knowledge about the entire, even if local, society. None of the local communities of the estate-owned domain of the GDL in the 16th–mid-17th centuries has been the object of a separate research up until now. It should be noted that the research deals with a relatively early, socially and ethno-confessionally heterogenic micro-society with limited references in historical sources. The objective of methodological individualism applying the micro-historic method is to encourage the identification of rules of social structure and its functioning out of the numerous similar research studies of local communities in future. The new aspect of research in this paper is the attempt to synthesise separate fields of historical acquisition (social, military, religious, economic, cultural fields). The conducted research may contribute to the search for the criteria of historical regionalisation. The novelty of the research reveals in the problematics under analysis (communication research). Attention paid to inter-group relations and social daily practices of those groups is not common in historiography. The communication research enables a better identification of the peculiar character of the society of the early New Ages and the context of the period and thus extends the information network of the 16th-17th century society. The results of research will be of use for the researchers engaged in social communication studies as the sample of communicative history stimulating the research of the systems of communication of other local communities. The factographical novelty of the research reflecting in the introduction of the new data into scientific circulation is worth mentioning as well. Numerous archival sources employed for the first time should supplement the historiographical depository of the Radvilas family and may encourage the research of other periods as well as create preconditions for writing the entire history of the DB (1547-1811) in future. In terms of the use of the new data, the paper may be found valuable and interesting for the researchers of the history of war, church, economy and society. Another relevant aspect of the paper is the fact that it contributes to the correction of inaccuracies of historical "myths" since the findings do not always confirm the tendencies of the GDL history documented in academic syntheses and historiography.

In this dissertation, I explore how the post-Soviet Latvian state and people are invited and pressured to become European through discourses and practices of tolerance promotion, which have emerged as an integral element of contemporary liberal political culture in Europe. I locate this intervention in the broader context of the "minority problem" through which Eastern European states and peoples have been and continue to be governed by supranational organizations, such as the League of Nations at the beginning of the 20th century and the Council of Europe in the present. My work examines concrete practices of tolerance promotion through which local and international human rights and minority organizations, as well as international monitoring bodies, ask Latvians to reflect upon and remake their attitudes and conduct in relation to ethnic, racial, sexual or religious difference. Due to the fact that tolerance promotion initiatives draw legitimacy from the various political treaties and human rights conventions that shape the European present in Latvia, many Latvians exhibit skepticism and resentment towards such initiatives and view them as political and legal injunctions that misrecognize the historical specificity of public and political life in Latvia, especially the way in which the Soviet past bears upon the present. Consequently, in the view of human rights and minority activists and organizations, the problem of intolerance is often closely linked with the problem of Latvian nationalism, which constitutes an obstacle on the road to acquiring political and cultural membership in Europe. In my research, therefore, I focus specifically on how the historical community of Latvians is constituted through arguments about tolerance in Latvia. Rather than explain the Latvians' reluctance to embrace the liberal politics of tolerance as a problem of backward nationalism, I offer a more complex analysis of the historical and political contexts that produce such a reaction. For example, my research shows that the transnational discourses of tolerance tend to take for granted particular notions of sexual, racial, and ethnic identities, which, in turn, give rise to specific understandings of public and political life. Consequently, the Latvians' skepticism and resentment is largely a reaction to the ways in which the discourses and practices of tolerance attempt to remake public and political life. In six chapters, which focus on politics of injury, minority politics, injurious language, anti-racism, gay and lesbian activism, and the practice of critical reflection, I show that arguments about racism in Latvia are not only about whether there is racism in Latvia or not, but also about how public reflection on racism matters for the collective life of Latvians in the current historical moment; or how arguments about intolerant language are not only about which words are injurious and which are not, but also about the historical conditions that enable the question of injury to be posed at all; or how arguments about gay and lesbian politics are not only arguments about normative morality, but also about different conceptions of self and associated forms of political engagement. Most importantly, I show that arguments about the ways in which Latvians should relate to ethnic, racial, or sexual identities are profoundly shaped by concerns that the injunction to publicly reflect on the problem of intolerance misrecognizes the demands that the recent and injurious Soviet past places upon public and political life in the present. The dissertation is based on ethnographic fieldwork I conducted between 2005 and 2008 on the implementation of the European Union funded National Program for the Promotion of Tolerance, which was launched in 2004. My primary research object was the practices through which the problem of intolerance was introduced, addressed, and contested as a matter of public reflection and conduct. My field site was therefore constituted, on the one hand, by the activities of a network of government institutions and human rights and minority organizations that aimed to address problems such as racism, homophobia, and intolerant speech, and, on the other hand, by ordinary Latvians' responses and reflections on these issues.While my ethnographic research focused on the discourses and practices of tolerance that have emerged in the Latvian public sphere during the last seven years, my work is not primarily aimed at a critical examination of tolerance as a particular kind of political rationality. Rather, I am interested in arguments about tolerance that unfold in a specific historical conjuncture in Latvia at the intersection of the Soviet past and the European present. Moreover, I am interested in the kind of political subjects and relations between them that are constituted through arguments about tolerance and what they tell us not only about the post-Soviet Latvian present, but also about the European present more generally. In analyzing the discourses and practices of tolerance, my aim is thus threefold: (1) to trace how the historical community of Latvians is constituted through arguments about tolerance; (2) to show that this historical community of Latvians cannot simply be characterized as animated by deeply rooted nationalism, but is rather an effect of political subjectivation that unfolds at the intersection of imperial, colonial, and communist trajectories; and (3) to show how the historical specificity of public and political life in Latvia illuminates the possibilities and limitations of particular analytical frameworks, such as that of nationalism, as well as of liberal political culture in Europe.

U radu se raspravlja o pozadini natpisa koje je, urezane na tronošcima posvećenim Apolonu Izmenijskom u beotskoj Tebi, video i citirao Herodot u petoj knjizi svoje Istorije (V 59-61). Navedeni odeljci deo su jednog većeg diskursa u kome Herodot zapravo raspravlja o istoriji Atine arhajske epohe i gde nastoji da kaže nešto više o poreklu i ulozi slavnih tiranoubica Harmodija i Aristogejtona. Pažnju čitalaca, međutim, oduvek je naročito intrigiralo to što su, kako navodi veliki istoričar, posvete načinili sami heroji Amfitrion, Alkajev sin i Heraklov smrtni otac, Skaj, Hipokontov sin, i Laodamant, Eteoklov sin iz dinastije Labdakida, kao i to da su, navodno, bile ispisane tzv. kadmejskim slovima. Pod ovim kadmejskim ili feničkim slovima Herodot očigledno podrazumeva najstarije grčko pismo koje je, kako se verovalo, Helenima doneo heroj Kadmo, kada je, tragajući za sestrom Europom sa svojim Feničanima pristigao u Grčku. To ima posebnu težinu u kontekstu navedenih posveta Apolonu u Tebi, pošto je heroj Kadmo smatran i mitskim osnivačem Tebe - Kadmeje. Isto tako, nije bez značaja da su i votivni tronošci, koji se pod uticajem tradicije i epske poezije javljaju u celom grčkom svetu, opet naročito česti i karakteristični za grad Tebu i Beotiju kao oblast. Tronošci su obično posvećivani bogovima u znak zahvalnosti za ostvarenu pobedu, najčešće na važnim panhelenskim svetkovinama. Međutim pobede na sportskim ili muzičkim takmičenjima nisu morale biti i jedini razlog i motiv za ovakvu vrstu posveta. Zahvalnost bogovima izražavana je votivnim darovima i za uspeh svakog drugog većeg preduzeća. Pored toga, mnogi od ovih votivnih predmeta, naročito u starijim epohama, nisu nosili natpis koji je po pravilu, mogao sadržati samo ime dedikanta i ime boga kome je predmet bio posvećen. Na prvobitno neispisanim tronošcima mogle su se naknadno urezati posvete u ime stvarnih ili izmišljenih dedikanata. Takav je, bez sumnje, slučaj i sa tronošcima iz Apolonovog hrama u Tebi čije natpise u heksametru navodi Herodot. Natpisi na tronošcima koji beleže posvete Apolonu heroja Amfitriona Skaja i Laodamanta potiču verovatno iz druge polovine 6. veka pre n.e. i samo su date u ime navedenih ličnosti iz mitske prošlosti. Posvete su, po svemu sudeći, bile ispisane arhajskim alfabetom korišćenim u Beotiji, a koji je i po Herodotovom priznanju (V 59) sasvim odgovarao pismu kakvim se u istom periodu pisalo u Joniji. Razloge, međutim, da se ove posvete pripišu baš pomenutim herojima treba tražiti u aktivnostima onih društvenih grupa i slojeva u Tebi i Beotiji koji su nalazili interes u prenošenju informacija o dalekoj prošlosti na ovaj način. Dobro je poznato da se Heleni nisu prisećali svoje prošlosti, već su je neprestano stvarali. Pored pesnika, hramovi i osoblje hramova su imali naročito važnu ulogu u oblikovanju istorijske svesti i predstava o mitskoj prošlosti Helade. Za Tebance je svetilište Izmenijskog Apolona bilo od posebnog značaja, što pokazuju ostaci prvobitnog hrama podignutog već u 8. veku, kao i brojni zavetni darovi iz različitih epoha. Zato je i uloga sveštenika i hramovnih službenika ovog Apolonovog svetilišta u oblikovanju istorijske svesti Tebanaca, ali i konkretno u vezi sa navedenim dedikacijama Apolonu, mogla biti odlučujuća. Savremenicima, kao i samom Herodotu koji je posetio svetilište, ove posvete u ime heroja nisu pobuđivale nikakvu sumnju. Ovakva praksa, verovatno raširena u helenskom svetu, najbolje je poznata na osnovu slavne Hramovne hronike iz Linda na Rodosu koja beleži zavetne darove boginji Atini Lindiji u ime brojnih slavnih ličnosti iz daleke i mitske prošlosti (FGrHist 532 = I.Lindos II 2). S druge strane, interes u beleženju ovakvih posveta nalazili su i aristokratski rodovi i porodice koje su mogle izvoditi poreklo od heroja, a preko njih od bogova. I ova praksa je dobro poznata već u arhajskom periodu, a nema sumnje da je tako bilo i u gradu Tebi, poznatom po svojim oligarhijskim vladama. Za potrebe kreiranja ovih genealoških veza sa bogovima i herojima verovatno je tokom 6. veka pre n.e. možda baš u Beotiji, i is- pevan slavni i često korišćeni ep Katalog žena greškom navođen pod imenom starijeg beotskog pesnika Hesioda. Osim toga, u vezi sa navedenim posvetama Apolonu u ime heroja Amfitriona, Skaja i Laodamanta, možda se iz tih natpisa da naslutiti i interes šire zajednice naime grada Tebe, pre svih drugih. To naročito važi za period oko i posle 520. godine, kada su Tebanci nastojali da učvrste svoju hegemoniju u novoformiranom Beotskom savezu. U tom pravcu su mogli ići i pokušaji da se lokalno tebansko svetilište Apolona Izmenijskog predstavi kao svetilište od značaja za sve Beoćane. Ovakvi zahtevi su mogli biti samo pojačani i osnaženi 'istorijskim argumentima iz daleke prošlosti'. ; The paper discusses the background of the inscriptions engraved on tripods dedicated to Apollo Ismenios in Thebes, as they were seen and quoted by Herodotos in Book V of his Histories (V 59-61). Even though the inscriptions were made on behalf of the figures from the Heroic age - Amphitryon, the son of Alkaios, Skaios, the son of Hippokoon, and Laodamas, the son of Eteokles - and were supposedly written in 'Kadmeian letters', they probably date from the second half of 6th century. That is why this paper considers the reasons to ascribe these dedications to the mentioned heroes, and an attempt has been made to identify possible dominant groups of aristocrats that played a role in transmitting information about the past in this way.

U članku se objavljuju rezultati istraživanja provedenih na lopudskom Kneževu dvoru. Donose se podaci o njegovim tipološkim obilježjima i načinu gradnje, o prostornoj organizaciji cjeline i kuće, o funkciji pojedinih prostorija i infrastrukturi 15. stoljeća. Tlocrtno rješenje i arhitektonska dekoracija unutrašnjosti i vanjštine pokazuju karakteristike i gotičkog i renesansnog stila. ; Research carried out in 2005 in the Rector's Palace on the island of Lopud resulted in two kinds of finds. One clarified the function and appearance of the rooms of this monument in the second half of the 15th century and proved to be important for the renovation. The second set of finds, however, can be considered completely unexpected, relating to the manner of construction, the preparation of the ground and the way the rooms are equipped technologically. Here it is not the stone furniture or installations that are meant. Almost nothing of these finds can be renovated and restored to its function, but is of great importance for knowledge of the conditions of housing at that time. By referring to the notes in little known fragments from the writings of the greatest treatise writers of the time it has been shown that the camino and necessario together with all the outlet ducts (chimneys and channels) are topics that they found engrossing. The typological particularity of the Lopud Rector's Palace derives from the combination of the two essentially different functions – residential and public. However, of all the seats of government in the extra-urban area of Dubrovnik, this is the best example of the creation of a grand building for public use by the adoption of the typological and architectural features of country villa architecture. The characteristic L-shaped ground plan created by a two storey house and wing with terrace, the disposition of the developed parts within the fenced plot and the division of the fenced garden into two parts (including the courtyard), the link of the hall with the terrace in front of the façade and with the garden behind are all marks of many of the Dubrovnik villas. But while the villas, almost without exception, have a standard floor plan on both ground floor and first floor – a central hall and two rooms on each side, in the Lopud Rector's Palace there was a deviation from this kind of plan. In the ground floor the deployment of the rooms and their apertures in shape and size is subordinated to function. But on the first floor it is very different: in that part of the façade that is visible in the full height, the fenestration is symmetrical, irrespective of the asymmetrical arrangement of the rooms. Here prevailed, clearly, the aspiration to mark the piano nobile by the regular distribution of windows. On the façade, then, the apertures of the ground floor and the upstairs do not correspond along the vertical axes. This prompts the conclusion that some of the elements in the organisation of the space and the fenestration – in spite of the stylistic forms of architectural decoration – reveal a stronger connection with Gothic than with Renaissance architecture. The interweaving of Gothic and Renaissance elements can be followed in the Lopud palace in the spatial division, in the distribution of apertures on the facades, and also in the parallel appearance of windows in both one and the other style. What is more, here it is shown that in spite of the increasingly marked penetration of Renaissance forms, the traditional Gothic shapes were still preferred, and considered a mark of refinement, particularly where the exterior is concerned. For this reason on the front elevation, which can be seen from a distance and from all around, there are only Gothic apertures, while the Renaissance windows are placed on the subsidiary lateral elevations visible only from the garden. The time of the creation of the Rector's Palace on Lopud was determined by some characteristics of the architecture and some stylistically formed elements of its stone furnishing. And while on the fireplace and all the wall wardrobes in the rooms, in the private areas, that is, Renaissance forms prevail, in the grandest public room in the hall on the top floor the most important decorative element, the large wall wash basin, the Gothic type of framework remains, decorated with Renaissance motifs. Irrespective of such combinations of two styles corresponding to a fairly broad time span, it is certain that a decision to build the Rector's Palace on Lopud could have occurred only after 1447; the upper limit for the building can be placed in the 1470s. Proof of this kind of dating can be found in Lopud itself. In its own Lopud surrounds, the Rector's Palace remained a supreme achievement. The example would be followed in various ways, but it would have been hard for the forms of the two styles to be so logically and properly combined at all levels anywhere else. In the quality of its architecture the Rector's Palace on Lopud should call to mind numerous still unexplored and undiscovered houses, palaces and mansions that with the loss of their original function are gradually disappearing, while at the same time, outside this country, increasing attention is being devoted to the history of residential architecture.

Tēmas aktualitāte saistīta ar valsts pārvaldes modernizāciju un e-pārvaldes t.sk. e-pakalpojumu ieviešanu. Lai izveidotu e-pakalpojumu, būtiski ir izprast pakalpojumu jēdzienu publiskajā pārvaldē, lai tā sniegšanu uzlabotu, izmantojot informācijas tehnoloģijas. Taču jautājums par pakalpojumu publiskajā pārvaldē ir daudz dziļāks nekā tikai konkrētas funkcijas optimizācija. Pakalpojumu jēdzienu publiskajā pārvaldē sāk izmantot kā atbildi sabiedrības spiedienam padarīt pārvaldi efektīvāku, ar to saprotot gan tās darbības skaitlisko rādītāju uzlabošanos, gan ērtību radīšanu indivīdiem, kuri vienlaikus ir valsts pārvaldes klienti. Pakalpojumus valsts pārvaldē var definēt dažādi atkarībā no izvirzītajiem uzdevumiem un pakalpojuma saņēmēja individualizācijas pakāpes. Dažādu autoru publikācijās un arī politikas plānošanas dokumentos nav dota viennozīmīga publiskā pakalpojuma definīcija, un funkciju loks, ko šis termins aptver, var būt visai daudzveidīgs, tāpēc katrā konkrētā dokumentā jāpievērš uzmanība pakalpojumu jēdziena apjomam, kas var svārstīties plašās robežās. Lai pētītu pakalpojuma jēdziena izpratni Latvijā, darba pētnieciskajā daļā analizēti Latvijas un Eiropas Savienības politikas plānošanas dokumenti, kā arī tiesību akti, kuri tiešā veidā ietekmē pakalpojuma jēdziena izpratni Latvijas publiskajā pārvaldē. Darba sākumā izvirzītā hipotēze par to, ka publiskās pārvaldes pakalpojumi ir veids, kā pierādīt sabiedrībai publiskās pārvaldes lietderīgumu un darba efektivitāti un, līdz ar to vairot sabiedrības uzticēšanos gan izpildu, gan lēmējvarai tiek apstiprināta daļēji, jo pakalpojumu definēšana pati par sevi iedzīvotāju viedokli par publisko pārvaldi neuzlabos. Tomēr – pakalpojums ir iestādes funkcijas rezultāts un ja tas ir definēts, tad to ir parādīt sabiedrībai un to var izmantot par kritēriju dažādu reformu efektivitātes mērīšanai. Latvijas prakses analīze pierāda, ka e-pārvaldes efektīva ieviešana nav iespējama bez pašas pārvaldes. E-pakalpojumi, bez paša publiskās pārvaldes pakalpojuma arī ir problemātiski, jo informācijas tehnoloģijas nodrošina piegādes kanālu, nevis pašas sniedz pakalpojumu. Kanāls viens pats bez pakalpojuma nekādus uzlabojumus ne pārvaldei, ne klientam nedos. ; The importance of this topic in the latest years is concerned with implementation of e-governance solutions in the public administration, including also development of e-services. In order to develop e-service it is necessary to understand meaning of service in the public administration. The main question about substance and role of the service in public administration is much complicated as it looks from the viewpoint of the e-governance. The hypothesis advanced for the study is to define public service as a way to explain society what administration does and to demonstrate effectiveness of the reforms and results of the improvements in the public administration. The concept of public service in the public administration started to develop mainly since last two decades of the 20th century as reply of politicians and administration to the demand coming from society for the more effective governance. Effective governance in this case means request for measurable results and orientation to the market principles. Because in global level improvements in the public administration in the latest years is concerned with implementation of information and communication technologies, also e-governance and e-services are discussed in this study. The main base of empiric part of the study includes analysis of the policy documents and normative acts of European Union and Republic of Latvia. In the level of European Union e-governance and e-services in general are concerned with implementation of Lisbon strategy end following with e-Europe 2002, e-Europe 2005 and 2010 initiatives. Those initiatives and following programmes became the reason for the development of e-services in the national countries. And here concepts of public administration met e-governance. Especially it is important for the countries following Roman or continental system of law. It is necessary to have clear link between public function and public service as a way for implementation of this function. Analysis provided in this study shows wide borders of usage of the service concept in the public administration. The service and the client in the public administration are not the same as in the private relationships. Difference of those approaches and possibility to define borders of the service concept in the public administration are discussed in this study. Service concept can include marketing measure, quantitative measurement of the effectiveness and efficiency in the public administration and execution of the public functions. In the context of the administrative reform and formation of the Informative society in Latvia it should be mentioned importance of the legal concepts. Some unclear definitions in the law On State Governance rises unclear understanding of the service concept in public administration and later difficulties to define public services were met. The hypothesis for the public service as a way to explain society mission of the public administration corroborated partially, because there is no straight relation between satisfaction of society and improvement of public services, but service as unit for further measurements and defined process can become an argument. As regards link between public services and e-government, especially for the countries following continental system of law, it is impossible to develop e-service without the main service what is the result of execution of public function. Wide boarders of the public service concept makes necessary to define it in each policy regarding this concept separately, to have clear understanding of the subject.

"Valsts sagrābšanas" koncepts: Latvijas piemērs Anotācija Pasaules Banka 2000.gada pētījumā par korupciju bijušajā komunisma valstīs, Austrumeiropā un PSRS pirmo reizi politiskās korupcijas definēšanai šajā reģionā lietoja terminu "valsts sagrābšana" Vienlaikus PB savos pētījumos konstatēja, ka lielākā daļa pospadomju valstu, tai skaitā Latvija ir smagas politiskās korupcijas skarta. PB konstatēto, ka Latvijas "valsts ir sagrābta" un tās svarīgākās valsts institūcijas pārņemtas, nākamos gados apstiprināja arī virkne citu autoritatīvu starptautisko un Latvijas ekspertu veiktie pētījumi, tādejādi neapstrīdami apliecinot problēmas politisko nozīmību ne tikai atsevišķās valstīs, bet reģionā kopumā. Arī Latvijas piemēra analīze apliecina, ka, neskatoties, ka no Latvijas neatkarības atjaunošanas pagājuši jau padsmit gadi, joprojām var runāt par plaša mēroga politisko korupciju, turklāt līdz ar gadiem korupcijas apjomam nebūt nav tendence samazināties, bet gan pieaugt, iegūstot arvien rafinētākas un grūtāk identificējamas formas. Kā klaiskākos Latvijas "valsts sagrābšanas" piemērus var minēt Latvenergo "trīs miljonu lietu", valsts digitālās televīzijas ieviešanas projektu, politiķu un partiju parakstītos sadarbības līgumus par noteiktas politikas realizāciju un lavēlīgu lēmumu pieņmšanu, Aivara Lemberga krimināllietu, Jūrmalgeitas skandālu, vēlēšanu kampaņu tēriņu ierobešojumu neievērošana, ar valsts drošības dienestiem saistīto likumu grozīšana u.c. Līdz ar virkni iepriekš minētajiem koruptīvajiem darījumiem un aizdomām par rafinētu "valsts institūciju sagrābšanas" realizāciju, ir pamats apgalvot, ka pēdējo 17 gadu laikā Latvijā ir notikusi arī ekonomiskās un politiskās varas saplūšana un atsevišķu politisko spēku biznesa un politisko interešu izlīdzināšanās jeb vienādošanās, ko lielā mērā sekmējus kvazi-politisku organizāciju darbība Latvijā. Tāpēc darbs "Valsts sagrābšanas" koncepts: Latvijas piemērs skaidro un risina aktuālas mūsdienu Latvijas politikas jautājumu, piedāvājot politisko korupciju skatīt caur politisko partiju prizmu. ; "State Capture" concept: Latvia case study Synopsis In 2000, the World Bank in its research about corruption in post-Soviet region – Eastern Europe and USSR – for the first time subdivided corruption not according its scope, but according its type into administrative and political corruption, defining it as "state capture" At the same time the World Bank revealed in its researches that most of post Soviet countries including also Latvia are affected by hard political corruption defined as "state capture". What was stated by the World Bank that Latvian "state is captured" and its most important state institutions seized, a year later was confirmed also by UN Development Programme's National Human Development Report for Latvia published in 2001 and analyzing decision making mechanisms and procedures in the country. Key conclusion of the report was that a closed model of politics formation had developed in Latvia, where parties and business elite have decisive importance, while civic society has trifling influence on political process. These and similar conclusions were confirmed also in other international and local researches about Latvia. Analysis of the Latvia's case also confirms that although 17 years passed since the independence of Latvia had been restored we still can talk about wide-scale political corruption. Moreover, with the course of time corruption tends not to diminish but expand, becoming even more refined and complicated for identification. Among classical examples of "state capture" over the last years we can mention Latvenergo "three million case", state project for digital TV launch, agreements between politicians and parties about the implementation of fixed policy and adoption of favourable decisions, Aivars Lembergs' criminal case, Jūrmalgeit scandal, non-observance of expenses limit for election campaigns, amendments to laws regarding national security services etc. All above mentioned corruption cases and suspicions about refined "state institutions capture" being realized, suggest that over past 17 years economic and political powers have merged in Latvia and business and political interests of some political forces have equalized or unified, which was very much promoted by the activity of quasi-political organizations in Latvia. The goal of this study was to make analysis of most wide-scale Latvia's cases of "state capture", which confirm seizure of most important state institutions – legislative and executive power, by using the World Bank's concept of "state capture", corruption typology suggested by political scientist Rasma Kārkliņa and Transparency International. At the same time another task of the study was to prove a hypothetic assertion about the importance of quasi-political organisations in seizing state institutions and to describe the mechanism of merger between economic and political powers. Principles of quasi-political organisation formation and activity were described using the example of the People's Party and Latvia's First Party. The study concluded that the seizure of most important Latvian state institutions realized by secret powers network in the nineties of the 20th century guaranteed political elite a possibility to fulfil its interests avoiding possible penalty. There are also reasons to suspect that legislation has been "arranged" appropriately by misusing power with the aim to fulfil personal or sponsors' economic interests and neutralize political or business competitors. The cases analyzed in the study also confirm that political agenda of political parties, government and parliament differs very much from people's political agenda. Over these years it was one of the crucial factors, which furthered people's estrangement from the state authorities and distrust to them. Thus we can forecast that also Latvian society will soon run out of patience with such all embracing corruption, because as V.Kalniņš points out, there are at least two further alter

The programme for a revitalization of Africa through the New Partnership for Africa?s Development (NEPAD) project is determined by the need of the African continent to overcome its historic heritage and a rather unfavourable current situation, and to become part of the globalisation processes that had spread throughout the world in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. After a brief clarification of the terminology included in the very title of the above project, the author identifies and analyses the important characteristics of the current situation in the continent, which has been and still is conditioned by the marginalisation and isolation of the continent from the main streams and processes that had been expanding throughout the world over the past decades. Assessing that the underdevelopment and poverty are the essence of the problem, the subliming factor of all other negative trends and the main cause of the continent?s marginalisation in the world?s economic, political and civilizational developments, the main point of the analysis is actually focused on finding the causes of this situation. In that context, the legitimacy of colonialism, the consequences of the globalisation process in the African continent, the link between domestic and external factors in the cause-and-effect connection with the negative development of the continent are being analysed. The analysis of the important factors of the present and the future of the continent includes and identifies the historic and current advantages of the continent, which are also the realistic foundation on which the revitalization project rests on, such as natural and human resources and the richness of Africa?s culture, which has largely contributed to the diversity of the global cultures. In the section on the contents and objectives of the programme for a revitalization of Africa, the author points out several essential characteristics, underlining that the programme is a part of the African leaders themselves, that it is the authentic product of their awareness that without their own responsibility for the fate of Africa?s peoples the problems that those countries are faced with will not be overcome. Since the purpose of the programme for a revitalization is to include the continent in the globalisation processes its implementation depends directly on the support and assistance of the international community and the international agencies and organizations particularly of the African Development Bank, the World Bank and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Namely, the global partnership for Africa?s development is directly correlated with the preservation of the global stability. A continuation of Africa?s marginalisation in the globalisation process would be a serious threat to both the world stability and the globalisation process itself, which would be incomplete without the inclusion of all of the world countries. With an identification and analysis of the main priorities of the Programme and of the mechanisms and responsibilities for its implementation, the author concludes that NEPAD?s implementation will be successful only if it becomes the property and a true concern not only of the leaders but also of all African peoples united in their diversity. The author analyses the historic and current external and internal factors that had caused the present situation in the continent, and identifies the potential natural, human and other resources. The programme for a revitalization also encourages the raising of self-consciousness of the segments of society at large about the realistic potentials of the African peoples, thus gaining also a mobilizing character. The author believes that the drawing up of the Plan of Action and its inclusion in the Programme is a rather positive side of the programme for a revitalization assessing it as a strategic mechanism for obtaining sustainable development in the 21st century. The Plan of Action identifies establishment of peace and stability, democratisation of the systems in African countries and formation of uncorrupted and competent governments, that would work in the interest of the people and not in the interest of certain groupings or individuals, as important conditions for the implementation of the strategy. The author also points out the basic sector priorities that the Plan of Action stipulates: overcoming infrastructural differences between certain sectors, investing in information and communication technologies development of electric power supply industries, transport and water supply. The development of human resources implies a poverty reduction, advancement of education system, upgrading of intellectual elite, development of health systems, agriculture, culture, science and technology. In the section on "Controversies, challenges and problems in the process of programme realization," the author tries to consider the Programme? vision, contents and objectives within the milieu of Africa?s present reality and the main development tendencies in the international scene, which would to a large degree determine the frameworks, scope and results of the Programme?s attainment in practice. In view of the diversity of cultures and traditions beliefs and religions, different historic heritage, and with this different external influences, disproportionate degree of economic and overall social development, conflicts within and among certain states, the tradition of unconstitutional rulers and rules, corruption and a series of other factor the author concludes that the project, basically substantial and progressive, will be faced with a number of challenges, dilemmas and difficulties, which would make its implementation uncertain, inconsistent and time-consuming.

The broad application of semiotic approaches to organisations has been considered by a number of information systems academics to be a necessary advance in information systems theory (see for examples Land 1985, Rzevski 1985, and Tully 1985). Along with psychology and sociology, semiotics is considered to be a foundation discipline for information systems within the IFIP WG 8.1 FRISCO Framework (Falkenberg, et al eds/ 2000). Semiotics examines the processes of production and consumption of meanings in organisations, institutions and society, and their underlying mechanisms by means of what Pap (1991, 47) refers to as a ".systematic analysis of patterns of interpretive behaviour". Although often unacknowledged, meaning is central to any definition of an information system. While the concept of meaning and meaning making is difficult to define, semiotic theory can assist by emphasising the distinctions between 'information', 'meaning', 'sense' and 'reference' for example (see Noth 1990, 92-102). Eco (1976, 8), provides a broad definition of semiotics as the study of ".all cultural processes as processes of communication". Cultural processes are interpreted to include organisational contexts and processes thereby providing a link between systems and organisations. Most applied semiotic studies start by identifying or defining one or more models of the sign as the basic unit of analysis. Signs are usually glossed as 'something that stands for something else in some capacity or another'. Depending on the model of the sign, mention may be made to an entity for whom the 'stands for' relationship applies. For a discipline often defined as the 'study of signs', there are a plethora of distinct sign models from which to choose. The reader is directed to Winfried Noth's Handbook of Semiotics for a detailed description of different sign typologies, sign models and disciplinary history (Noth 1990, 79-91). The period of modern semiotics starts at the beginning of the 20th Century with the emergence of two independent traditions. The work of Ferdinand de Saussure represents one of these traditions. Considered to be the founder of modern linguistics, he is also a pivotal figure in semiotics by distinguishing the former from the later in Cours de linguistique generate (1916)- a volume assembled from lecture notes edited by colleagues and published three years after his death (currently available as Bally, Sechehaye and Riedlinger eds/ 1993). The other tradition is represented by the work of Charles Sanders Peirce, a founder of symbolic logic as well as an expert in philosophy, mathematics, and many other fields. Peirce developed a pansemiotic view so all-inclusive and elaborate that the definitive, chronological collection of his work called the Peirce Edition Project remains unfinished, only six of an estimated twenty volumes of have been published to date (see for example Houser et al eds/ 1999). Other semiotic traditions exist. There are semiotic forms of linguistics - referred to here as semio linguistics - which adopt a semiotic theorisation of text rather than using an explicit sign model during analysis. Examples include text semiotics, systemic functional linguistics (Halliday 1978, 1985; Martin 1992) and systemic semiotics (Fawcett 1986). There is also at least one influential form of semio-linguistics that does uses an explicit sign model (Hjelmslev 1943/1963), while Social Semiotics (Kress 1985; Hodge and Kress 1988) develops concepts of discourse, text and social subjectivity based on the 'social sign' of Bakhtin (see Todorov 1984). Despite the obvious applicability to information systems of a discipline that concerns itself with the study of 'patterns of interpretive behaviour', there have been impediments to more vigorous interchange between semiotics and informatics. There are several contributory reasons for this situation. A major contributory reason is that Western semiotics likes to trace its lineage back to the Stoics (approximately 300 BC to 200 BC) and the Epicureans (300 BC to 0) through to the Enlightenment and onto the 19th and 20th Centuries. Faced with this daunting history, and a diversity of researchers, theories, and terminology to rival the most entrenched of modem disciplines, it is not surprising that a casual 'dip' into the literature might prove unproductive. Moreover, as semiotics is centrally involved with understanding communication, it becomes obvious that many commonsense notions of what constitutes communication would need to be reconsidered. As a consequence, semiotics unusually needs to employ meta-theory of one form or another, which leave it open to charges of obscurantism and elitism (Sless 1986, 2). However, it is unreasonable to assume that the constructs used to explain and examine such complex and taken-for granted cultural phenomena must necessarily be simple. Another major contributory reason is the difficulty of locating semiotics within any single discipline- semiotics is inherently trans-disciplinary. Broad application domains have included, but are not limited to, the cultural constitution of subjectivity, criticism and knowledge, communication and perception. A sample of subjects using semiotic theory of one form or another would include cultural and literary studies, film criticism, feminism, political science, legal studies, town planning and architecture, anthropology, biology and genetics. Moreover, there is considerable debate about what constitutes the core criteria that defines semiotics (Pap 1991).

National audience ; This text is a new edition of two articles written in 1999. Among other things, it allows to ponder about questions that have already been strongly addressed and yet remained unresolved at the end of the past century, as well as on their permanence or their particular variation one or two decades later.The document proposes a double model of understanding about the functioning of city theatres on the one hand and, on the other hand, professional theatre companies in France at the end of the past century.The approach is based on a small number of in-depth case studies that are though contrasted enough to allow a first rise in generality. Beyond the singularity of each situation, a comparative analysis inductively reveals a set of recurring features and that is the backbone of the proposed models.The latter make it possible to assess any other case of the same type, either by proximity or difference in comparison to the recurring traits mentioned. Some of these elements could evolve or be deepened by taking a larger sample into account.The first article focuses on city theatres, which were not labelled at the time by the Ministry of Culture. It is based on three case studies with 1997 or 1998 as reference year.These theatres, either located in medium-sized towns or on the outskirts of city centres, provide a delicate mediation function at the crossroads of at least three worlds in tension : the local populations, the public authorities and the artistic teams. Their particular artistic project is based on a constant triangle of show distribution, cultural action and creative help. These projects are differentiated in particular according to the way in which the following double question is treated : the taking into account of the expressions specific to their local populations and the explanations about the dimensions at work in the artistic processes.The second article deals with professional theatre companies of low or medium reputation. It is based on three studies with 1996 as reference year.These organisations that are true associative enterprises are built around an artistic project which is itself based on theatrical aesthetics, including a type of relationship to the audiences. Between the search for permanence of action and the need to have a great flexibility, the theatre companies develop a plurality of activities which are to be constantly put in relation with the partners they manage to mobilize and the networks to which they belong. The financial dynamic that is always delicate is then to be first understood as a result of the social game in which these organisations manage to position themselves. ; Ce texte est une réédition de deux articles écrits en 1999. Il permet, entre autres, de s'interroger sur des questions déjà fortement prégnantes et non résolues en fin du siècle dernier, ainsi que sur leur permanence ou leur déclinaison particulière une ou deux décennies ans plus tard.Le document propose un double modèle de compréhension concernant le fonctionnement, d'une part, des théâtres de ville et, d'autre part, des compagnies théâtrales professionnelles en France à la fin du siècle dernier. L'approche s'appuie sur un petit nombre d'études approfondies de cas, néanmoins suffisamment contrastés pour permettre une première montée en généralité. Au-delà de la singularité de chaque situation, une analyse comparée permet ainsi de dégager inductivement un ensemble de traits récurrents, qui constitue l'ossature des modèles proposés. Ceux-ci permettent d'évaluer tout autre cas de même type, par proximité ou écart aux traits récurrents avancés. Certains de ces éléments pourraient évoluer ou être approfondis par prise en compte d'un échantillon plus large.L'article initial s'intéresse aux théâtres de ville, équipements non labellisés à l'époque par le ministère de la Culture. Il s'appuie sur trois études de cas, avec 1997 ou 1998 comme année de référence.Ces théâtres, implantés dans des communes de taille moyenne ou situées à la périphérie de villes-centre, assurent une délicate fonction de médiation à la croisée en tension d'au moins trois mondes : les populations locales, les collectivités publiques et les équipes artistiques. Leur projet artistique particulier se décline autour d'un triangle constant de diffusion de spectacles, d'action culturelle et d'aide à la création. Ces projets se différencient notamment selon la manière dont est traitée la double question de la prise en compte des expressions propres à leurs populations locales et de l'explicitation des dimensions à l'œuvre dans les processus artistiques.Le second article s'intéresse aux compagnies théâtrales professionnelles de faible ou moyenne notoriété. Il s'appuie sur trois études, avec 1996 comme année de référence.Véritables entreprises associatives, ces compagnies sont constitués autour d'un projet artistique, lui-même fondé sur une esthétique théâtrale incluant un type de rapport aux publics. Entre recherche d'une permanence d'action et nécessité de disposer d'une grande flexibilité, les compagnies développent une pluralité d'activités à constamment mettre en relation avec les partenaires qu'elles arrivent à mobiliser et les réseaux auxquels elles appartiennent. La dynamique financière, toujours délicate, est alors à d'abord comprendre comme une résultante du jeu social dans lequel la compagnie arrive à se positionner.

Constatar el vacío que deja lo que ha sido categorizado como caducidad de los "Grandes realatos", constituye el punto de partida o premisa de este texto; lo cual tiene su plasmación en el ámbito de las ciencias sociales, afectando a las dos grandes corrientes que han prevalecido a lo largo de más de sesenta años, esto es; marxismo y funcionalismo. La inexistencia de marcos teóricos consistente capaces de dar cuenta y aprehender (sinónimo de captura y depredación) los fenómenos que acontecen en las formaciones capitalistas de fin de siglo, mezcla compleja,caótica de "neofordismo" y "postfordismo" aparece como la consecuencia mas inmediata. Lo que pone de manifiesto la importancia básica de indagar y definir acerca del "lugar de la enunciación". Los elementos que se proponen aquí, a modo de conjetura, desde una óptica afín al "desconstrucccionismo", muestran el carácter en tanto que producción discursiva y autorreferencial de estos saberes, en los que destacan "umbrales " y "reglas" que operan en su despliegue retórico. Discursos y reglas vehiculados por específicos artefactos científco- técnicos para la inteligibilidad de lo social, informatizado. Tales saberes y artefactos tecnológicos (recurrentes, sociohistóricos y portadores de una insoslayable dimensión política y formalizadora ) topan en su funcionalidad codificadora y de regulación con un límite, a saber: la naturaleza básicamente impredectible,estocástica, del "magma social" En cualquier caso, esta situación ymás en concreto, sus repercusiones en los artefactos científico-técnicos, tiene efectos paradójicos. Por un lado es sintomática de la vulnerabilidad de los instrumentos de análisis e intervención "normalizadora". Pero, por otro, abre un abanico de posibilidades en un sentido profundamente critico y desconstructivo, que permite jugar con el carácter "intensional" del pensamiento. Ello supone que las descripciones o aseveraciones pueden "flotar" sin estar necesariamente adheridas a objeto conocido alguno. ; Constatar el buit que deixa elque ha estat categoritzat com a caducitat dels "Grans relats", constitueix el punt departida o premissa d'aquest text. Aixó té la seva plasmació en l'ambit de les ciències socials i afecta els dos grans corrents que han prevalgut al llarg de més de seixanta anys, és a dir: marxisme i funcionalisme. La inexistència de marcs teórics consistents, capacos de donar compte i d' aprehendre (sindnim de captura i depredació) els fenómens que esdevenen en les formacions capitalistes de finals de segle, barreja complexa,caòtica de "neofordisme" i "postfordisme", apareix com la conseqüència més inmediata i posa de manifest, sobretot, la importància bàsica d' indagar i definir el"lloc de l'enunciació".Els elements que es proposen ací, a manera de conjetura, des d'una òptiva afí al "descontruccionisme",mostren el caràcter com a producció discursiva i autoreferencial d' aquests sabers, en els quals destaquen "llindars" i "regles" que operen el seu desplegament retòric. Discursos i regles vehiculats per específics artefactes científico- tècnics per a la intel·ligiblitat del fet social informatitzat.Aquests sabers i artefactes tecnològics (recurrents, socio-històrics i portadors d' una ineludible dimensió política i formalizadora) topen, en la seva funcionalitat codificadora i de regulació,amb un límit ,a saber: la natura bàsicament impredecible,estocàstica del "magma social" .De qualsevol manera,aquesta situaciói, més en concret les seves repercussions en els artefactes científico- tècnics, té efectes paradoxals. Per una banda és simptomàtic de la vulnerablilitat dels instruments d' anàlisi i d' intervenció "normalitzadora". Però per altra banda, obre un ventall de possibilitats en un sentit profundament crític i desconstructiu que perment jugar amb el caràcter "intensional" del pensament. Això suposa que les descripcions o asseveracions poden "flotar" sense estar necessaàriament adherides a algún objecte conegut. ; To confirm the gap left by has been classified as a lapse of the "great reports" is the starting point of this text.Which takes shape within the boundaries of the social sciences,affecting the two main tendencies which have prevailed for more than fifty years,that is: marxism and functionalism.The non-existence of firm theorethical frames,able to account for and understand (a synonim of capturing and depredation ) the phenomena that occur in the capitalist formations of the end of the century, a complex, chaotic mixture of "neofordism" and "postfordism" emerges as the most immediate conseqüence, and reveals ,above all, defining and delving into "the place of the statement".The elements proposed here, in a way of guess, from a viewpoint similar to that of the "desconstruccionism" show their caracter as discoursive and self-referential production of this knowledge, from which "thresholds" and "rules"ta and operate in their rethorical display.Discourses and rules conveyed by specific scientific-technical devices for the intelligibility of the social computerized.Such knowledge and tecnological devices (recurrent socio-historical and conveyers of an unavoidable political dimension) come up against a boundary in their codifying functional characther, namely: the basically impredictable, stocastic nature of the "social magma ". Anyway , this situation and, more specifically, its repercussions on the aforementioned thecnological devices, has paradoxical effects. On the one hand, it is simptomatic of the vulnerability of the instruments of analysis and a "normalizer" intervention. But, on the other hand, it spreads out a whole range of possibilities in a deeply critical and desconstructive sense, which allows to play whith the "intensional" character of thougth.That supposes that the descriptions or claims can "float" without being necessarily stuck to any known object whatsoever.